This article introduces the current status and development trends of new energy vehicles in Europe, covering the European auto market, the EU’s carbon emission regulations, the new energy promotion policies of EU governments, and the new energy vehicle strategies and technical road-maps of European original equipment manufactures (OEMs). Although the long-term goals of new energy vehicles of major European OEMs are different, because they must comply with the same CO₂ emission regulations, the short-term technical road-maps are similar, that is, pure electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles go hand in hand. In terms of power batteries, European OEMs have all adopted lithium ion battery technology; In terms of pure electric powertrain system, European OEMs basically adopt the configuration of drive motor combined with single speed reducer; In terms of hybrid powertrain systems, the choice of European OEMs is based on the parallel structure, which has not only potential for optimizing energy transmission efficiency, enriching working modes, but also giving full play to the traditional advantages of European OEMs in engine and transmission technology. It is worth mentioning that dedicated hybrid transmission (DHT) technology has been successfully launched in Europe. This technology can give full play to the advantages of electrified powertrains and is forming a development trend. The EU’s strict CO₂ emission regulations are the biggest driving force to ensure the sustainable development of new energy vehicles in the next few decades. Europe’s strength in traditional automotive technology, production, and sales is also becoming a strong advantage in the development of its new energy vehicles. It is expected that in the next ten years, the share of new energy vehicles in Europe will continue to grow steadily, and new energy vehicles will dominate the European market before 2040

The proposed “Double Carbon” policy has brought a broad prospect to the development of hydrogen energy. Fuel cell, as the best way of hydrogen energy utilization, has been embracing a new round of prosperity in research field and industry, and proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), which is maturely developed in commercial vehicles, has gained more attention. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) and bipolar plate (BPP) are two key components of PEMFC stacks, and they directly determine the cost and performance of the stacks. The technologies of water and thermal management and cold start also play vital roles for the realization of stack performance and the promotion of practical application. This article comprehensively illustrates the impact of various technologies above on the performance, lifespan and cost of stacks, and then points out their development trend. In addition, fuel cell vehicles will be applied as buses and heavy duty trucks in near future. And the application as passenger cars put forward higher requirements on power density and cost of stack.

Lightweighting of automotive is an important measure for energy conservation and emissions
reduction with significance for sustainable development of automotive industry. This paper summarizes the
current research and future trends of automotive lightweight technology in China and in the world from three
aspects: the structural optimization, the lightweight materials, and the advanced manufacturing technology.
The review includes the basic principles and research developments of structural size optimization, shape
optimization, to pological optimization, and multidisciplinary design optimization. And it introduces the
applications of high-strength steel, aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, plastic material, composite material;
as well as the applications of hydroform and laser welding in automotive industry. The authors think that the
lightweight technology future research area are the improvement of automotive structural optimization theory,
the multi-material integration, the lightweight components, and the systematization and integration of lightweight
technology.

The limitation of traction battery systems in performance, cost, life, and safety constitutes the bottleneck for
the diffusion of electric vehicles. This paper analyzes dozens of electric vehicles in the phase of R & D and several major
commercialized electric vehicles, identifies and reviews four key technologies for the traction battery system, the assembly
of cells into the battery, thermal management, electric energy management, and safety. Underlying these key technologies,
two fundamental academic issues are specified: 1) the generation, transfer, and removal of heat in the stacked composite
system comprising cells and heat conduction plates/flow fields; 2) the modeling, identification, and control of the battery
system comprising a multitude of non-linear, time-varying cells connected in parallel and series. Further development
tendency for traction battery systems are viewed, such as the smart cell and the integration with the grid and internet.

Life prediction and performance state estimation online are important in the life stage for each lithium-ion battery in electrical vehicles (EVs). The battery capacity and internal resistance were used to compare the model structure and the chemical meaning of eigen-parameters of two basic approaches; one is the identification of specific parameters based on the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) in the time domain and the other is Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) analysis in the frequency domain. The results show that the common inherent conflict between the nonlinearity of batteries and the linearization of the identification algorithm constrains the development of lithium-ion battery in EV. Therefore, proposals such as aging mechanism, new life modeling approach, hardware structures and algorithm improvement are given to resolve the difficulties encountered in the implementation of battery life estimation online for lithium-ion systems.

Improving the energy-saving effect of new energy vehicles through vehicle motion planning and control has become a key research focus at home and abroad. This paper summarizes the latest research status of energy-saving planning and control technology for new energy vehicles, and analyzes the eco-routing, eco-driving, eco-charging, energy management and multi-task optimization techniques involving multiple fields above. The study found that although the current energy-saving planning and control technology for new energy vehicles has made considerable research progress, it is difficult to solve the problem in dynamic or random traffic behavior scenarios, and the integrated and collaborative optimization, which considers deeply related behaviors such as path, speed and charging, remains to be explored, and the high-value research results also need to develop from experimental verification to industrial application. This paper proposes that the future development trends of energy-saving planning and control technology for new energy vehicles include: 1) new problems considering the time-varying environment and random behaviors; 2) new algorithms using advanced prediction and efficient solutions; 3) new methods to systematically solve multi-vehicle, multi-task and multi-dimensional problems; 4) new applications that can be replicated and promoted in real scenarios. studying and solving the above problems is of great significance to achieve a higher level of energy-saving control of new energy vehicles.

PMSM (permanent magnet synchronous motor) drive systems has been having general used in
various industries needed high precision control due to a rapid development of microprocessors. The proper
system configuration is still complex and time consuming. To overcome such a limitation, this paper presents
a FOC (Field Oriented Control) algorithm for PMSM speed control algorithm performed in Matlab/Simulink by
using standard blocks only, which is realized in almost any DSP (Digital Signal Processing) processor by using
auto-coding tool in Matlab. STM32F4 microcontroller was employed. Simple Active Currents Reading Error
Compensator was introduced for appropriate feedback signals filtering. Precision of the signal was set to around
10 mA of current –10 Bit with an Analog-to-Digital Converter operated by three bidirectional 5-A Hall current
sensors. A PMSM sensored motor was tested in 0~2 000 r/min. The experimental step responses to desired
speeds show good dynamic and smooth performance of the entire system.

The state-of-the-art and technical trends of intelligent and connected vehicle (ICV) are illustrated.
The ICV system architecture included the value chain, technology chain and industrial chain. The four stages of
ICVs were the advanced assistance, connected assistance, cooperative automation and highly/fully automated
driving. Some key technologies of ICVs were introduced such as environmental perception, decision making,
dynamical control, human-machine copilot, V2X communication and platform, cyber security. Therefore, China
should develop the ICV industry rely on the top-down design by using the national institutional advantages
because the ICV will be an important direction of the automotive technology in the future, and the ICV
development is a great opportunity for the transformation and upgrading of China's automobile industry.

Several countries’ governments are producing mandatory regulations of automotive engineering
to reduce CO2 emission and fuel consumption. The electric vehicles are one of the results by engineers'
special efforts. This paper gives a wider view of innovation of automotive engineering and a look into the
future. Technology trends include that 1) More Intelligent driver assistance systems can be distinguished
into safety functions, comfort functions, traffic efficiency improvement and environmental effect reduction; 2)
Body technology is determined by the used materials with competition between multi-materials, steel, and
carbon fibres; 3) Chassis technology is improved by integrated vehicle dynamics control, active suspension
components and material application; 4) Drive trains are converted into hybrid-drives with intelligent solutions
on the horizon for these hybrid gearboxes, but also for four-wheel drive systems; 5) Electronic control is
focusing on central control modules, the mobile phone for quite new applications and inventions for car
lighting.

The performance and life of electric-vehicle battery-systems are affected by the temperature. A
liquid cooling/heating Battery Thermal Management (BTM) with an optimum geometric structure was designed
to keep the average battery-system temperature in the range from 20 ℃ to 45 ℃ and the temperature gradient
within 3 ℃ . According to overall system flow balancing in a BTM, cooling/heating plates with different structure
parameters were simulated to investigate cooling effects of the BTM. An infrared thermal imager monitored the
cooling/heating plate temperature rises in battery-system heating experiments. Experimental and simulation
results were shown to be the same. The results show that the structure with an inlet and an outlet on the
same side has an even flow distribution. By combining the simulation and optimization, the obtained optimum
combination of the inlet velocity and the temperature in the cooling/heating plate reduces the plate-surfacetemperature
standard-deviation to 2.61 ℃ , and makes the battery system uniformly heated.

Field data analyses have shown that the occupant protection in rear seats failed to keep pace with the advances in front seats likely due to their low occupancy and the lack of advanced safety technologies. This study provided a comprehensive literature review on rear seat occupant protection addressing the different needs for a diverse population, ranging from children in harness restraints to adults with a wide range of stature, age, and body shape. Based on the findings from field data analyses, experimental studies, and computational simulations, rear seat safety can be improved by properly using age-appropriate child restraints and introducing
adjustable/advanced/adaptive features into the rear seat restraint systems. However, the lack of biofidelic injury assessment tools for children, older, and/or obese occupants will be one of the major challenges for further improving the rear seat safety. The increased proportion of older and obese populations, the growth of lightweight vehicles, the popularity of smart-phone-based ride service, and the advances in active safety technology and autonomous vehicles will likely increase the significance of rear seat safety but at the same time will pose additional challenges. All these trends suggested that more efforts on optimizing rear seat restraint systems adapting to a wide range of impact conditions, occupant characteristics and sitting postures are necessary in the future.

A research progresses on the working principle, development path, application status and regulation of the autonomous emergency braking (AEB) technology were introduced to promote the car’s autonomous emergency braking technology to be safer and more efficient. The key technologies related to the
comprehensive performance of AEB system were summarized, including collision avoidance strategy, braking execution technology and front-end perception technology. The results show that AEB system can effectively avoid or mitigate collision, which can greatly improve the vehicle's active safety performance. However, AEB system can’t avoid any collision at higher vehicle speed and more complex traffic scenarios on account of low level braking execution technology and front-end perception technology. The technology focus for AEB will be comprehensive performance optimization of collision avoidance strategy in more complex traffic scenarios, the development of brake actuators based on shorter response time objectives, and the deep integration and the coordinated control of multiple active safety technologies under dangerous driving conditions.

Development status and trend of connected automated vehicle highway (CAVH) system are presented. The system consists of four key modules: sensing module, fusion and prediction module, planning module, and control module. The system initially starts from a level of “simple vehicle, smart road” or “smart
system” and gradually migrates to a higher-level system of “smart vehicle, smart road”, which can significantly improve transportation efficiency, traffic safety and energy consumption. The development of the CAVH system is very important for China. Accordingly, the roles and functions of government agencies in transportation planning, construction and management need be well defined to develop the CAVH system.

The current international vehicle technology was introduced. This article described the passive safety technology: automotive collision safety design and vehicle structure design technology, key technology of advanced passenger restraint systems, vehicle safety devices to protect pedestrians, collision safety and security performance evaluation database platform; and the active safety technology: vehicle dynamics stability control technology, integrated chassis control technology, intelligent security auxiliary control technology, pre-warning technology based on people - Vehicle dangerous condition monitoring. A development mode of the advanced automotive security technology, was proposed. The  trends of the car-road coordinate control, intelligent highway and basic research of common technology were also preseuted.

 Investments of automotive safety technology have substantially been increased due to heavy casualty in traffic accident in China. It thereby accelerates the improvement of R&D capability of safety technology and commercialization process. The fact that the domestic-brand vehicles have achieved C-NCAP 5-star rating marks a great leap forward in terms of passive safety technology in China. The research of passive safety is further performed with regard to pedestrian protection, rear-row passenger’s protection, whiplash protection and cyclist protection. Meanwhile, the research and development of active safety, pre-crash safety and intelligent automotive network system have become the focuses. The perfect combination of high level active and passive safety technology regarding to passenger, vehicle and environment will promote the accomplishment of safety philosophy of zero crash and zero casualty. The subject establishment of state-level development and industrialization, and regulations constitution and perfection thereof will become the driving force of rapid growth of auto safety technology

Commercial vehicles are an important force in road transportation and a large carbon emitter. Realizing the green transformation and development of commercial vehicles is an important breakthrough in accelerating the achievement of the “Carbon-Peak and Carbon-Neutrality” target in the automotive industry. However, policy-driven and market demand have posed new challenges and requirements for the development of commercial vehicle technology, especially with the emergence of multiple technological routes for power transmissions. This paper focuses on the application scenarios of medium and heavy trucks, light and pickup trucks, and buses under different power sources such as traditional fuel, hybrid, pure electric, and hydrogen fuel cell, and analyzes the technical characteristics, product spectrum, applicability in different scenarios, and technological development trends of power transmission systems for commercial vehicles. A new prospect is put forward for the development of power transmission technologies for commercial vehicles to provide a reference for the technical path selection and technological innovation and development of commercial vehicle transmissions.

To promote the fuel economy level of passenger vehicle industry in China is beneficial to energy
saving and emission reduction. The Corporate Average Fuel Consumption (CAFC) of passenger vehicles
in China market was investigated based on the authority’s data and standards. The results show that the
passenger-vehicle CAFC in China market in the year of 2011 is 7.5 L/(100 km), which overall meets the target
value of Phase 2 in the "Limits of Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars" (GB 19578-2004, 2004-09-02) of
China, but does not meet the target of Phase 3 (GB 27999-2011, 2011-12-30). The vehicle companies with
independent-brands have lower real CAFC values than those with the joint-venture-brands, but have a higher
ratio of the real value to the CAFC target standard, so they have more work to do to meet the Phase 3 standard.
Compared with domestic vehicles, imported passenger vehicles have higher CAFC real values and a higher
ratio of the real value to the target standard, which shows a severe challenge to the domestic vehicles.

Autonomous driving is one of the three major innovations in automotive industry. Deep learning is a crucial method to improve automotive intelligence due to its outstanding abilities of data fitting, feature representation and model generalization. This paper reviewed the technologies of deep neural network (DNN) for autonomous vehicles, which covered its history, main algorithms and key technical application. The historical timeline of DNN, its “Unit-Layer-Network” architecture, and two types of representative models were introduced. The training algorithms centered on back propagation (BP), labelled datasets and free-source frameworks for deep learning were summarized, followed by the introduction to computing platforms and model optimization technologies. Finally, the applications of DNN in autonomous vehicles were discussed, including object detection and semantic segmentation, hierarchical and end-to-end decision-making, longitudinal and lateral motion control. The applicable methods and future works for different key problems of DNN in autonomous vehicles were pointed out.

Electromagnetic brakes (EBs) are widely applied in commercial vehicles for their characteristics of
contactless, fast response, and simple controlling. The principle and research situation of EBs were given to
expand their application scopes and functions. The application status, the structure, the working principle and
the control method of EBs were discussed to three main EBs including the eddy current retarder, the rotary eddy
current retarder, and the self-excited retarder for commercial vehicle. The results show that the key technologies
are the external and inner characteristics of the electromagnetic brakes, the matching designs and the design
of control strategy and the controller of united braking system of both electromagnetic and friction. Technology
focus for electromagnetic braking will be the integrated system of electromagnetic brakes and frictional brakes,
and function extension of electromagnetic brake system.

Ethanol is being promoted as a renewable fuel and as a means of improving energy security. The
blends of gasoline and ethanol from 0 – 100 % ethanol were studied to evaluate their spray characteristics,
combustion performances, and particulate emissions with blends of ethanol and water with up to 40 % water
by volume being tested to research the combustion performances of different water ethanol blends and the
miscibility of water with ethanol/gasoline blends using ternary phase diagrams for gasoline, ethanol, and water.
The results show that presence of water in ethanol/gasoline mixtures is not an impediment to their use as a fuel
in gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines. Adding ethanol to gasoline increases the injected fuel volume and the
persistence of the fuel sprays, especially for a cold engine, leads to reduced mixture homogeneity, a decrease
in the combustion stability, and an increase in particulate matter emissions for a stoichiometric mixture. Adding
water to ethanol further increases injected fuel volume, but the increase in combustion duration and reduction in
combustion stability are not significant with up to 30 % water by volume.

A review on the state-of-art in the world for fuel cell technology was given, which is an efficient,
clean, and new energy technology, including in China, northern America, European Union, Japan, South Korea
and so on. A comparison analysis was made in different aspects, such as the technical specifications of fuel
cell vehicles, the lifetime and the environmental adaptability of fuel cell engines, the hydrogen storage system,
the key materials, the auxiliary system of fuel cells, the demonstration of fuel cell vehicles and the infrastructure
of hydrogen refueling stations. The results show that global automobile companies are prepared for the
industrialization of fuel cell vehicles, and will enter mass production stage in 2015; while fuel cell vehicles are still
in the demonstration stage in China. The future hot points in next generation fuel cell vehicles are the cell life
extension, the system cost reduction, the hydrogen infrastructure construction, and commercial demonstration.

Authors reviewed the role of fuel additive in producing quality transportation fuels and fuel additive for optimal vehicle performance, meanwhile studied fuel additive application for advanced hybrid vehicles and direct injection engines. Transportation fuel and vehicle technology are rapidly evolving in response to regulatory and commercial efforts to assure energy supply, improve fuel economy and reduce mobile source emissions.  Along with these changes, the fuels must meet the demands for transportation and storage in a safe and efficient manner and the vehicle performance requirements to ensure acceptable operation in consumer use.  This evaluation looks at the broad class of fuel additives and considers how they can provide fuel producers with a means to readily deliver safe and effective transportation of fuel and to allow for effective operation of changing engine technologies. 

Along with the development of economy and vehicle technology, traffic accidents have some particular characteristics including the high mortality of vulnerable road users and ‘nonstandard groups’ of people, crash incompatibility, high death rate of single-vehicle accidents, and a significant number of accidents caused by drivers’ insufficient perception. The developing trends of active safety technologies and passive safety technologies in terms of each subsystem by analyzing the traffic accident data in China, Europe and the United States since 2000. The main trends of passive safety include protection on vulnerable road users, adaptive passenger protection, crash compatibility and adaptive crashworthiness. The main trends of active safety include vehicle dynamic management and intelligent driving assistant. The comprehensive safety technology integrating the active and passive safety will be an important trend for the development of future vehicles.

Safe-driving was assisted with key parameters calibrated according to the driver’s characteristics
using a developed system of vehicle collision warning and collision avoidance (CW/CA). The system defines the
inverse of time-to-collision (TTC-1) as the evaluation index with the grading warning and braking safe distance
model adopted based on hazardous level ε . A millimeter waveradar obstacle detection method was designed
with adaptive cruise control (ACC). The system configuration and control logic were designed based on a Jetta
car with the collision avoidance test and the manual / automatic interaction test implemented on dry roads. The
real car experiments show that the CW/CA system in accordance with desired TTC-1 index improves vehicle
active safety, and embodies the driver’s priority and cooperation.

Under the trend and background of continuous strengthening of motor vehicle pollution control and continuous electrification of vehicle power, in recent years, many countries around the world have been discussing the “no internal combustion engines” orders. Meanwhile, more stringent emission regulations have been introduced one after another, which have become a matter of life and death to the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) power. However, ICEs will remain the main form of power for heavy commercial vehicles due to the requirement of transport capacity and driving distance. At present, the European Union, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have all issued new heavy-duty vehicle emission regulations, and China has also started research on the National VII emission standards. This article compares and analyzes the latest developments and trends of European and American heavy-duty vehicle and engine emission regulations at the next stage from 6 aspects: exhaust emissions, actual road tests, greenhouse gas emissions, on-board diagnostics (OBD) and remote monitoring, non-exhaust emissions, and durability requirements. The specific requirements of each standard are clarified, and possible technical routes are pointed out, aiming to provide reference for the heavy-duty vehicle and engine industry to respond to emission standard upgrades and related forward-looking research in a timely manner. The research results shows that there are 5 major development trends in the future emission standards of heavy-duty vehicles: Exhaust emission testing is developing towards ultra-low emissions of multiple pollutants, and in the case that it may become the final generation of emission regulations, long-term emission reduction plans should be considered in emission regulations at the next stage; Pay more attention to vehicle on-road, low load, idle and cold start emissions; Strengthen coordinated control of greenhouse gas and conventional gas emissions; Realize efficient monitoring of in-use vehicle emissions by means of remote big data; Add the tests of non-exhaust emissions such as braking and tire wear. In short, the next stage of pollution standards for heavy-duty vehicles will incorporate new methods and concepts in terms of pollution types, emission testing methods, and emission monitoring methods, so as to continuously promote the development of heavy-duty vehicles towards the goal of clean, environmentally friendly and efficient.

As global traffic congestion and safety concerns become increasingly prominent, the widespread application of autonomous driving technology is considered a vital solution. Two prominent areas of research in autonomous driving are single autonomous driving (SAD) and intelligent vehicle-infrastructure collaboration systems (i-VICS). This paper explores the fundamental concepts and critical technologies of both. In terms of SAD, the focus is on perception, localization, decision-making, planning, and control execution, while i-VICS is centered on cooperative perception, collaborative localization, vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, and hierarchical cloud control. Furthermore, it reviews the progress of research in these technologies and summarizes the development paths chosen by China, the United States, Germany, and Japan. The transformative impact of these technologies on the commercial and industrial supply chains is also examined. Finally, the paper analyzes the technical challenges faced by both SAD and i-VICS, along with the social and legal challenges of autonomous driving, offering insights into future development directions, and providing a reference for the innovation and application of autonomous driving technology.

Durability is one of the challenges for the commercialization of fuel cell vehicles. The mechanisms and solutions
for fuel cell degradation are elucidated from the material and system point of view. In the aspect of fuel cell system, typical
operating processes are analyzed, such as driving cycles, start-stop, low load and idle conditions, in which reactant starvation,
dynamic potential scanning and local high potential have significant impacts on the fuel cell durability. Feasible strategies are also
discussed for mitigating the degradation. The current state and perspective are addressed on the durability of key material in fuel
cells, i.e., catalyst, catalyst support, proton exchange membrane, membrane electrode assembly and bipolar plate. The effective
methods to enhance the fuel cell durability should be based on both the material innovation and system improvement. Currently,
the improvement on system control strategy is a feasible way to prolong fuel cell lifetime although it has been result in a complex
system. Nevertheless, material innovation is a long term task to promote the fuel cell durability. Fuel cells with advanced durable
materials and simply system is a desirable goal for the fuel cell vehicle application.

The performances of hybrid propulsions and hybrid brakes of various electric vehicles (EVs)
significantly affect their energy efficiency and their safety. The development statuses were worldwide reviewed
for the hybrid propulsion and hybrid braking technologies from the aspects of the parameter matching and
optimization, the blending energy management, and the dynamical cooperative control to conclude and analyze
the scientific topics and generic technologies. Further researches that need to be carried out in the hybrid
propulsion and the hybrid braking to improve EV performances include the parameter matching and optimization
when vehicle dynamics considered, the construction of cyber-physical system which can provide a platform
for online management of vehicle multi-source and dual-way driving and braking energy, and the investigation
of dynamic characteristics, blended mechanisms, and cooperative control for dynamical-process of the hybrid
propulsion and the braking systems under critical driving situations.

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology has already made tremendous advances. However,
performance, cost, and durability remain the key problems before PEM fuel cells can be successfully commercialized. This
paper is a review of current status in the study of PEM fuel cells and the existing challenges for their use in electrical vehicle
(EV) applications,basedon a survey of the published literature. In reviewing the current status, we introduce presentstate-ofthe-
art PEM fuel cell technology for EV applications and look at key technical achievements. PEM fuel cell research has made
particularly significant progress in improving performance, cost, and durability, primarily focusing on the main components of
the stack and system. Nonetheless, commercialization of fuel cell electrical vehicle (FCEV) applications is still confronted with
performance, cost, and durability hurdles, hindering the achievement of the 2010/2015 US DOE (Department of Energy) targets.
The maintenance of fuel cell vehicles as another component of their future commercializationwas also reviewed.

Hybrid technology is an effective way for passenger cars to meet future regulations. Engine
performance has great influences on power performance, fuel economy and emission of hybrid cars. This paper
reviewed the state-of-art and development process of engines for hybrid passenger cars in the world, compared
and analyzed the engines’ energy-saving technology roadmaps. Four-stroke natural aspirated (NA) highexpansion
ratio gasoline engines and boosted gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines are the two mainstream
technology roadmaps of engines for conventional hybrid passenger cars. In the future, the two pathways will
evolve in parallel. The luxury hybrid passenger cars mainly use the boosted GDI engines while the economic
hybrid passenger cars mainly adopt the NA high-expansion ratio gasoline engines. Small-displacement fourstroke
gasoline engines will be the mainstream range-extender engines. Engines for hybrid passenger cars tend
to become smaller, more fuel-efficient with lower manufacturing cost.

In order to explore the working characteristics of the pressure boosting valves and pressure reducing valves of the One Box Electro-Hydraulic Braking System (EHB), multi-field-coupled modeling and simulating methods of pressure boosting valves and pressure reducing valves were proposed, and results were verified by innovative testing bench. The structures and working principals of pressure boosting valves and pressure reducing valves were introduced. Each physical characteristic of pressure boosting valves and pressure reducing valves were precisely modeled. Multi-field coupling simulations, including electromagnetic field, flow field, and motion field, and experimental verifications for the pressure boosting valve were conducted. Simulations and experimental verifications were performed for the pressure reducing valve, including electric circuit, electromagnetic field, and motion field. The results show that the simulation error of the flow rate of pressure boosting valve is lower than 1.5 mL/s, the open delay response error of pressure reducing valve is smaller than 1.3 ms, and the close delay response error smaller than 0.3 ms, indicating that the proposed simulation method has a high accuracy, and providing a guidance for the control of the valves.

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) possess potential performance advantages, such as high safety and high energy density, making them a strategic frontier in global power battery technology competition, which has been incorporated into the development strategies of major countries including China, the United States, Japan, South Korea, etc. Currently, the research & development of ASSBs has entered a critical breakthrough phase, with the leading enterprises such as Toyota, BYD, and CATL expecting to initiate the applications of ASSBs in electric vehicles around 2027. However, before large-scale application, comprehensive performance evaluation and failure analysis of ASSBs are still required to ensure their safe and reliable operation under complex working conditions in electric vehicles. Notably, existing research indicates that ASSBs still suffer from risks of thermal runaway and are not absolute safe, as their failure mechanisms under complex operating conditions remain inadequately understood. In light of this, this paper systematically reviews the potential safety issues of ASSBs from the perspectives of materials, interfaces, and cell design, including the intrinsic thermal stability of key materials such as cathodes, anodes, and solid state electrolytes; high-temperature thermochemical reactions at the cathode/anode-electrolyte interfaces; lithium dendrite growth and the resulting internal short circuits; and toxic gas production and environmental hazards during battery failure. Building on this analysis, the paper further outlines future research strategies for the safety of ASSBs from the perspectives of in-depth failure-mechanism analysis, optimization of key materials and interfacial stability, and system-level gas management and thermal protection, thereby offering systematic theoretical support and practical guidance for their safety assessment and engineering deployment.

Facing to the background of global efforts to reduce carbon emissions and transition toward low- and zero-carbon energy systems in response to climate change, ammonia-hydrogen internal combustion engines have emerged as a promising and increasingly studied solution in the transportation sector due to their potential for zero carbon emissions. Ammonia offers several advantages as a fuel, including high hydrogen energy density, ease of storage and transport, and excellent anti-knock properties. However, its inherently slow combustion characteristics and nitrogen-containing nature bring significant challenges, particularly in terms of high nitrogen oxide (NO_x), unburned ammonia (NH₃), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. Optimizing the combustion process of ammonia-hydrogen fuels and achieving near-zero emissions in internal combustion engines (ICEs) are relatively new research areas that presents formidable technical challenges.

This paper reviews the latest research developments in the emission characteristics and near-zero emission control strategies for ammonia-hydrogen fueled ICEs. First, in terms of emission mechanisms, NO_x formation during ammonia combustion is governed by complex pathways and is highly sensitive to equivalence ratio, pressure, and temperature. Earlier mechanistic studies focused primarily on low-pressure and medium-to-high temperature conditions, which differ significantly from the high-pressure, high-temperature environments of modern engines, highlighting a current gap in research. Second, in-cylinder pollutant formation and control remain key to emission reduction. In-cylinder control techniques, including optimization of fuel injection strategies, ignition timing, and intake conditions can effectively balance the relationship between emissions and thermal efficiency. Studies have shown that hydrogen enrichment can improve combustion efficiency and reduce NH₃ and N₂O emissions, though it may increase NO_x formation. Lastly, aftertreatment technologies are critical to achieving near-zero emissions. Due to the unique characteristic of emissions from ammonia-hydrogen combustion, new dedicated aftertreatment systems are required. These include selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for NO_x, ammonia slip catalysts (ASC), and strategies for addressing high global warming potential gases such as N₂O. Additionally, hydrogen-selective catalytic reduction (H₂-SCR) offers a novel pathway for mitigating hydrogen-related emissions in such engines. Future researches should focus on the synergistic optimization of in-cylinder combustion and specific aftertreatment systems, the development of low-temperature, high-efficiency catalysts, and the exploration of integrated aftertreatment solutions to meet increasingly stringent emission regulations and approach near-zero emissions. While ammonia-hydrogen dual-fuel ICEs hold significant promise in achieving carbon neutrality, their widespread adoption will require overcoming several technical challenges, particularly in emission control.

To address the rapidly growing charging demands of new energy vehicles, mobile charging robots integrated with photovoltaic energy storage and charging systems have emerged as a crucial direction in research and development. This paper outlines the necessity and significance of developing photovoltaic energy storage systems and mobile charging robots for new energy vehicles, along with their fundamental operational modes. It presents the structural framework and core advantages of the photovoltaic energy storage and charging system, as well as the classification and scenario-specific adaptability of mobile charging robots. Furthermore, the economic viability, safety, and reliability of photovoltaic energy storage and charging mobile robots are analyzed. The study reviews the current research status of three key technologies—autonomous charging, path planning, and charging port recognition and insertion—and evaluates their respective strengths and limitations. This paper also summarizes the development of a new system for application-oriented research on photovoltaic energy storage and mobile charging robots, along with its key enabling technologies, and explores various specialized application scenarios. Finally, the paper identifies the challenges faced by photovoltaic energy storage and charging technologies in areas such as energy transmission efficiency, safety and stability, dynamic programming, charging port identification and insertion, advanced energy storage solutions, and the expansion of application domains. It also provides insights into the future development trends of mobile charging robots.

Intelligent-vehicle structures are highly integrated with sensors, electronic systems, in-vehicle networks, communications, and cloud services, and these components interact strongly with each other. Such integration results in a pronounced fusion between physical structure and vehicle functions. Accordingly, the associated safety technologies have evolved into a strongly coupled framework that integrates structural safety, functional safety, and information security. This trend may have profound impacts on individuals, industries, and even national strategic interests. With data-flow transmission and interaction taken as the main thread, a comprehensive safety architecture with strong coupling across the structural, functional, and information domains is systematically reviewed. Major gaps are identified, including insufficient adaptability to extreme scenarios, an incomplete understanding of cross-domain coupling mechanisms, and inadequate full life-cycle safety assurance. The coupling between structural dynamic responses under multi-source disturbances and abnormal behaviors in electronic subsystems (perception, control, and connectivity) is further examined. On this basis, a strongly coupled structure-function-information safety and protection approach is proposed, and a safety detection and evaluation mechanism is established by explicitly considering cross-domain parameter interactions. The proposed mechanism supports multi-source risk linkage analysis, coordinated strategy management and control, and quantitative safety assessment. These results can serve as a technical reference for the large-scale deployment of intelligent vehicles and the improvement of related safety standards.

The weight matrix of traditional model predictive control (MPC) controllers usually relies on manual experience for parameter tuning, making it difficult to adapt to complex dynamic environments. Therefore, a method for adaptive adjustment of MPC weight matrices based on backpropagation (BP) neural networks was proposed. Firstly, the intelligent vehicle dynamics model with MPC control was established to analyze the influence of different weight coefficients on the vehicle trajectory tracking performance, secondly the data were constructed to train the BP neural network model, and the BP neural network adaptive MPC controller was constructed using the Matlab/Simulink module to jointly simulate with Carsim, and finally, a double-shift simulation condition was designed from different speeds and road adhesion coefficients to validate the robustness of the controller under different working conditions. The results show that the BP neural network-based adaptive MPC controller achieves favorable control performance across different speeds when the road surface adhesion coefficient is 0.85. At a speed of 65 km/h, the vehicle under the fixed-weight MPC control approaches destabilization, whereas the root-mean-squares (RMS) of the lateral displacement deviation and lateral angle deviation for the adaptive controller are reduced by 44.17% and 66.66%, respectively. The proposed controller also exhibits strong performance on road surfaces with varying adhesion coefficients—most notably on slippery roads with an adhesion coefficient of 0.35. When traveling at 30 km/h under such conditions, the RMS values of the two deviations are decreased by 27.49% and 49.54% compared to the fixed-weight MPC controller. This neural network-based approach for adaptive adjustment of MPC controller weights can provide valuable insights for enhancing trajectory tracking performance in medium-and high-speed cooperative control of intelligent connected vehicles, as well as in autonomous navigation systems for special operation vehicles.

A robust model predictive control (RMPC) strategy based on an active disturbance rejection extend state observer (ESO) was proposed to improve the robustness and tracking accuracy of clamping force control in an electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system. Firstly, electrical disturbances, mechanical disturbances, and environmental disturbances inherent in the EMB system were analyzed, and a mathematical model incorporating a lumped disturbance term was established. Secondly, an EMB clamping force control strategy based on RMPC was formulated, introducing an active disturbance rejection ESO to estimate and compensate for disturbances. Finally, a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experimental platform was developed to validate the proposed method. The results show that the EMB clamping force controlled solely by MPC exhibits significant fluctuation under load disturbance, with a maximum error of 228 N and a maximum error rate of 5.7%; In contrast, the clamping force under the combined RMPC with ESO action shows a maximum steady-state tracking error of only 38 N, with a maximum error rate of 1.52%, indicating that the proposed control strategy effectively suppresses disturbance effects, which can achieve high clamping force tracking precision and strong anti-disturbance capability.

To evaluate the potential injury risks of mechanical massage seats during vehicle rear-end collisions, this study employed the Hybrid III 50th percentile male dummy model to conduct comparative crash simulations between conventional automotive seats and mechanical mas-sage seats, with particular focus on analyzing occupant injuries to the head, neck, chest, and lumbar spine. The results showed that when using the 3ms resultant acceleration as the chest injury criterion, the values for mechanical massage seats and conventional seats are 26.6 g and 27.7 g, respectively, both meeting requirements; for the normalized neck injury criterion (N_ij), conventional seat occupants exceedes the threshold of 1, indicating significant injury risk, while mechanical massage seat occupants demonstrates excellent performance across all neck injury metrics with an N_ij value of 0.51, providing better protection; mechanical massage seats show greater advantages in reducing head injury risk, with lower HIC values for occupants; regarding lumbar injuries, the maximum force on conventional seat occupants is 1 670 N compared to 1 800 N for mechanical massage seat occupants, with the maximum LIC values being 4.32 and 3.67, respectively, both meeting safety standards and ensuring passenger safety. This research verifies the safety and reliability of mechanical massage seats in rear-end collisions, providing important reference value for future development and widespread application of mechanical massage seats.

An effective area prediction model was built based on composite material theory and fatigue degradation mechanisms to predict the dynamic response behaviors of rolling-lobe air springs over their full lifecycle. The evolving fatigue characteristics of cords and rubber materials were introduced to establish a multi-physical coupling relationship, in which the effective area was modeled as a function of the fatigue cycles and the deformation excitation amplitude under force. Dynamic validation tests were carried out under different fatigue cycles and deformation excitation amplitudes. The results show that the model prediction error is within 1% at different degradation stages. The effective-area increases with both the fatigue cycles and the deformation excitation amplitude; but decreases with the elastic modulus of the cords and the rubber materials. The effective-area growth trend at 50 °C accelerates and exhibits nonlinear characteristics.

Aiming at the matching problem of advanced restraint system in vehicle crashes, the distribution frequencies of vehicle Occupant Load Criterion (OLC) and the advanced restraint system parameters during the frontal rigid barrier collisions conducted over the recent three-year of a company were statistically analyzed. A Finite Element (FE) for crash simulation matrix was established. The Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test and the Spearman correlation analysis methods were used to investigate the vehicle OLC effect and the restraint system parameters on occupant injuries. The results show that the increased OLC significantly increases the occupant injuries severities (the correlation coefficient ρ=0.66, the significance p value<0.01) while the airbag vent size and the retractor TTF (time to fire) cannot significantly affect occupant injuries. The increased seatbelt first-level load limiter mitigates head injury but increases chest compression. Using the Pyrotechnic Lap Pretension (PLP) to pretension lap belt and the Crash Locking Tongue (CLT) to cut off the transfer of seatbelt forces can slightly decrease the chest compression. Moreover, the occupant hip restraint is enhanced and the movements of hip and legs are reduced, which alleviate the vehicle interior-leg impact severity and significantly reduce the lower limbs injury risks.

The distribution of multiple injuries across body regions of vulnerable road users (VRUs) in vehicle collision accidents was investigated to provide data support for assessing accident occurrence probabilities. 159 cases of in-depth traffic accident were selected from the existed VRU traffic accident database with video (VRU-TRAVi). The impact velocities were acquired by using the method of Direct Linear Transformation (DLT) and the frame-by-frame video analysis. The body injury regions were evaluated by using the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) and the Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS). The results show that the head and the lower limbs are the most common sites of injury. The head injuries total 139 cases, accounting for 87.4% of the total. Lower limb injuries reach 111 cases (69.8%), with the severity being classified into three grades: the minor (AIS 1), the moderate (AIS 2), and the serious (AIS 3). Dual-site/triple-site injuries reach AIS 2 or above, the combination of the head-thorax and abdomen/the head-thorax and abdomen-lower limbs is the most frequent, accounting for 49.0% and 58.8%. The highest proportion of cases is the Maximum Absolute Injury Severity (MAIS) score of 6 in the head region, accounting for 95.7% of all MAIS 6 cases, it is also the primary cause of fatalities in VRUs.

The relationship between collision patterns in truck-versus-electric-two-wheeler crashes, the kinematic responses of riders, and injury characteristics were investigated. 16 simulation experiments were constructed by using the multi-body modeling software MADYMO based on 263 scenario-related cases to analyze the collision angles and the positions. The results show that the head injury metrics (the head injury criterions (HIC) and the head angular accelerations) sharply increase when the collision angles exceeds 110°, with the peaking at the collision angle of 120° (the HIC of 11 931, the head angular acceleration of 73.9 krad/s²). When the collision position is in the central area of the truck, the cyclist’s HIC (1 231~1 461) and the head angular acceleration (22.6~26.9 krad/s²) fall within lower ranges, that means lower risk of head injury. When the collision occurs on either side of the truck, the cyclist’s chest 3-ms acceleration is 25.8g~121.8g, that means a lower risk of chest injury. Therefore, both the collision angle and the collision position have a significant impact on the cyclist’s kinematic response.

An in-vehicle detection method was proposed based on the fusion of spectral and temporal features to detect the external emergency vehicle sirens during high-speed driving. The input audio signal was transformed using the fast Fourier transform, and its log-Mel spectrogram was computed to extract spectral features. A convolutional neural network was used to model the raw waveform in the time domain, yielding temporal features. A coordinate attention mechanism was used to fuse and enhance the spectral and the temporal representations. The fused features were subsequently fed into a classifier for final detection. The experiments were conducted on both public and real-recorded datasets. The results show that on the LSAD-EVSRN dataset, the proposed method achieves an AUC (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve) score of 98.92%, with representing an improvement of 14.88% compared to using temporal features alone, and 2.52% compared to using spectral features alone. These results confirm the effectiveness of the fusion strategy, with a high robustness particularly under noisy conditions.

In order to ensure the safe driving of vehicles at night, the night lane lines were accurately recognized and lane departure warnings were made, a deep generative network EnhanceGAN for nighttime image enhancement and an end-to-end lane line detection network AttentiveLSTR based on Transformer were proposed for nighttime lane line detection, and experiments with real vehicles were conducted. The deep generative network EnhanceGAN used the improved UNet as the generator of the network, adopted a two-layer nested U-shape structure to expand the sensory field, and added a Markov local discriminator and a combined loss function to enhance the detailed information of lane line edges and textures. The lane line detection network AttentiveLSTR used ResNeXt as a feature extraction network to ensure the network depth and reduced the number of model parameters, and introduced feature pyramid networks (FPN) to extract lane line edge and shape information. The results show that compared with the mainstream methodsCycleGAN and Gamma Correction, the pro[osed method is more effective in nighttime image enhancement on the BDD100k dataset, with a high contrast between lane lines and surrounding environment, structural similarity (SSIM) of 0.883 4, natural and realistic images as a whole, peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) of 40.265 4, and natural image quality evaluation index (NIQE) of 3.423 3; the detection accuracy (Acc) on the CULane dataset is 90.12%, and the processing speed is fast, with 82 frames per second (FPS). The research results can provide a reference for nighttime lane line deviation scenarios.

A hierarchical energy management strategy-adaptive initial equivalent factor strategy (HEMS-AIEFS) was proposed to achieve near-global optimal energy allocation under real driving conditions. HEMS-AIEFS adopted a two-layer structure: The upper layer implemented a node-split state-of-charge (SOC) planning method for batteries, which used a dynamic programming (DP) algorithm to generate the relevant data for training neural network models. These models can predict the SOC node trajectories of different road sections in real time; In the lower layer, the predicted equivalent consumption minimization strategy (P-ECMS) was used to track the predicted SOC trajectories, in which the adaptive initial equivalent factor strategy (AIEFS) was added to set the initial equivalent factor (EF₀). The results show that the proposed AIEFS reduces fuel consumption by 2.36% to 7.69% compared to the conventional method of determining the initial equivalence factor, and that HEMS-AIEFS saves 1.56% to 9.13% of fuel consumption under different operating conditions comparing to the CD-CS strategy and requires 4.9% to 5.6% of the computation time of the DP algorithm. This study provides an effective optimization method for plug-in hybrid elective vehicle (PHEV) energy management optimization and demonstrates the potential application of navigation information in PHEV energy management optimization.

The application of active grille shutter (AGS) technology was investigated to address the challenge of traditional fixed grilles in hybrid commercial vehicles failing to dynamically adapt to differentiated thermal management demands under dual-heat-source coupling conditions. The impact of AGS de-flection orientation and angle on the aerodynamic and thermal balance performance of a hybrid light truck was analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. And an optimized AGS control strategy was proposed to enhance heat dissipation efficiency while reducing aerodynamic drag, thereby balancing energy consumption and thermal regulation requirements in complex oper-ating scenarios. The results show that the full operating condition of AGS can significantly increase the air intake of the intercooler and radiator, improving the thermal balance performance. The lower deviation of the AGS blades can guide the airflow to the cooling components, and avoid complex chassis parts, resulting to enhance the heat transfer situation and reduce the drag coefficient by about 2.85%. Under the conditions of 50 km/h climbing and 110 km/h high-speed, setting 60° and 75° grille opening can meet the heat transfer needs of the hair cabin, but also reduce the wind resistance coefficient of about 3.21% and 3.88%, respectively. Therefore, it is an important technical means to improve the thermal balance performance and energy consumption state to carry out the AGS optimal matching design and to associate the AGS control strategy on the hybrid light truck model.

To achieve lateral displacement control of pure electric vehicle models during the safety development process for small offset frontal collisions, a combined simulation and experimental approach ware employed to identify the key structural factors influencing lateral displacement, and to investigate the design methodology and evaluation metrics for front compartment configurations associated with such displacement behavior. Taking a certain type of pure electric architecture sedan of the company as an example, an optimization plan was designed. The results indicate that the proposed scheme increases the lateral displacement of the vehicle during collision disengagement by 236 mm, reduces the maximum structural intrusion by 119 mm in the structural rating assessment, achieves controlled vehicle sideslip. And the G rating is met, validating the effectiveness of the evaluation index, and providing a valuable reference for the development of small-overlap safety strategies in new energy vehicle programs.

To study the effect of solar radiation on the energy absorption properties of laminated windshields, a photothermal-mechanical coupling simulation model was proposed, which took into account the effect of sunlight on the temperature of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) interlayer and the mechanical property of the laminated glass. This study conducted a photothermal modeling of the temperature rise of glass under sunlight, and converted the temperature results into PVB interlayer modulus using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) tests. The modulus was used as the input for the headform-windshield impact finite element model to calculate the energy absorption property and pedestrian protection property of the windshield. The results show that in summer, when the transmitted solar power of the windshield is 700 W/m², the steady-state temperature of the interlayer increases to 70 ℃, the modulus of the interlayer decreases to about 1/500 of that at room temperature, and the critical speed of the headform penetrating the windshield decreases to 20 km/h from 40 km/h tested experimentally at room temperature. Solar radiation reduces the modulus of the interlayer by increasing the temperature of the interlayer, thus reducing the energy absorption performance of the laminated windshields, and increasing the risk of the head penetrating the windshield and having a secondary collision with objects inside the cabin.

To address the limitations of existing automatic emergency braking (AEB) systems—such as the susceptibility to obstacle misidentification in complex scenarios, the insufficient consideration of the preceding vehicle's acceleration, and the lack of control precision—this paper proposed an obstacle detection approach that integrated visual and LiDAR perception. A hierarchical AEB control strategy based on model predictive control (MPC) was designed to determine the desired braking deceleration, and a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller was employed to regulate the vehicle's brake master cylinder pressure. The results show that the proposed obstacle detection method can accurately identify obstacles in complex scenarios. Furthermore, the controller enables the vehicle to achieve a 100% deceleration rate across various AEB test scenarios, with braking acceleration being output as intended. The proposed methodology effectively enhances both safety and ride comfort during the automatic emergency braking process.

To address the challenges of spatiotemporal feature processing and inter-task dependencies in autonomous driving decision-making, this paper proposed an end-to-end driving decision model based on a 3D window self-attention mechanism. By applying window self-attention to compute the spatiotemporal features of the input sequence, and combining multi-task learning with loss weight allocation, the model effectively extracts features from driving videos and predicts vehicle speed and steering angle. The results demonstrate that the proposed model achieves prediction accuracies of 86.32% for steering angle and 85.36% for vehicle speed, outperforming models such as FMNet, Swin-Transformer, and MobileT-DSM. Moreover, it requires only 57.48 GFLOPs of computational cost, exhibiting superior spatiotemporal feature extraction as well as a better trade-off between performance and efficiency.