This article introduces the current status and development trends of new energy vehicles in Europe, covering the European auto market, the EU’s carbon emission regulations, the new energy promotion policies of EU governments, and the new energy vehicle strategies and technical road-maps of European original equipment manufactures (OEMs). Although the long-term goals of new energy vehicles of major European OEMs are different, because they must comply with the same CO₂ emission regulations, the short-term technical road-maps are similar, that is, pure electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles go hand in hand. In terms of power batteries, European OEMs have all adopted lithium ion battery technology; In terms of pure electric powertrain system, European OEMs basically adopt the configuration of drive motor combined with single speed reducer; In terms of hybrid powertrain systems, the choice of European OEMs is based on the parallel structure, which has not only potential for optimizing energy transmission efficiency, enriching working modes, but also giving full play to the traditional advantages of European OEMs in engine and transmission technology. It is worth mentioning that dedicated hybrid transmission (DHT) technology has been successfully launched in Europe. This technology can give full play to the advantages of electrified powertrains and is forming a development trend. The EU’s strict CO₂ emission regulations are the biggest driving force to ensure the sustainable development of new energy vehicles in the next few decades. Europe’s strength in traditional automotive technology, production, and sales is also becoming a strong advantage in the development of its new energy vehicles. It is expected that in the next ten years, the share of new energy vehicles in Europe will continue to grow steadily, and new energy vehicles will dominate the European market before 2040

The proposed “Double Carbon” policy has brought a broad prospect to the development of hydrogen energy. Fuel cell, as the best way of hydrogen energy utilization, has been embracing a new round of prosperity in research field and industry, and proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), which is maturely developed in commercial vehicles, has gained more attention. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) and bipolar plate (BPP) are two key components of PEMFC stacks, and they directly determine the cost and performance of the stacks. The technologies of water and thermal management and cold start also play vital roles for the realization of stack performance and the promotion of practical application. This article comprehensively illustrates the impact of various technologies above on the performance, lifespan and cost of stacks, and then points out their development trend. In addition, fuel cell vehicles will be applied as buses and heavy duty trucks in near future. And the application as passenger cars put forward higher requirements on power density and cost of stack.

Lightweighting of automotive is an important measure for energy conservation and emissions
reduction with significance for sustainable development of automotive industry. This paper summarizes the
current research and future trends of automotive lightweight technology in China and in the world from three
aspects: the structural optimization, the lightweight materials, and the advanced manufacturing technology.
The review includes the basic principles and research developments of structural size optimization, shape
optimization, to pological optimization, and multidisciplinary design optimization. And it introduces the
applications of high-strength steel, aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, plastic material, composite material;
as well as the applications of hydroform and laser welding in automotive industry. The authors think that the
lightweight technology future research area are the improvement of automotive structural optimization theory,
the multi-material integration, the lightweight components, and the systematization and integration of lightweight
technology.

The limitation of traction battery systems in performance, cost, life, and safety constitutes the bottleneck for
the diffusion of electric vehicles. This paper analyzes dozens of electric vehicles in the phase of R & D and several major
commercialized electric vehicles, identifies and reviews four key technologies for the traction battery system, the assembly
of cells into the battery, thermal management, electric energy management, and safety. Underlying these key technologies,
two fundamental academic issues are specified: 1) the generation, transfer, and removal of heat in the stacked composite
system comprising cells and heat conduction plates/flow fields; 2) the modeling, identification, and control of the battery
system comprising a multitude of non-linear, time-varying cells connected in parallel and series. Further development
tendency for traction battery systems are viewed, such as the smart cell and the integration with the grid and internet.

Life prediction and performance state estimation online are important in the life stage for each lithium-ion battery in electrical vehicles (EVs). The battery capacity and internal resistance were used to compare the model structure and the chemical meaning of eigen-parameters of two basic approaches; one is the identification of specific parameters based on the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) in the time domain and the other is Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) analysis in the frequency domain. The results show that the common inherent conflict between the nonlinearity of batteries and the linearization of the identification algorithm constrains the development of lithium-ion battery in EV. Therefore, proposals such as aging mechanism, new life modeling approach, hardware structures and algorithm improvement are given to resolve the difficulties encountered in the implementation of battery life estimation online for lithium-ion systems.

Improving the energy-saving effect of new energy vehicles through vehicle motion planning and control has become a key research focus at home and abroad. This paper summarizes the latest research status of energy-saving planning and control technology for new energy vehicles, and analyzes the eco-routing, eco-driving, eco-charging, energy management and multi-task optimization techniques involving multiple fields above. The study found that although the current energy-saving planning and control technology for new energy vehicles has made considerable research progress, it is difficult to solve the problem in dynamic or random traffic behavior scenarios, and the integrated and collaborative optimization, which considers deeply related behaviors such as path, speed and charging, remains to be explored, and the high-value research results also need to develop from experimental verification to industrial application. This paper proposes that the future development trends of energy-saving planning and control technology for new energy vehicles include: 1) new problems considering the time-varying environment and random behaviors; 2) new algorithms using advanced prediction and efficient solutions; 3) new methods to systematically solve multi-vehicle, multi-task and multi-dimensional problems; 4) new applications that can be replicated and promoted in real scenarios. studying and solving the above problems is of great significance to achieve a higher level of energy-saving control of new energy vehicles.

PMSM (permanent magnet synchronous motor) drive systems has been having general used in
various industries needed high precision control due to a rapid development of microprocessors. The proper
system configuration is still complex and time consuming. To overcome such a limitation, this paper presents
a FOC (Field Oriented Control) algorithm for PMSM speed control algorithm performed in Matlab/Simulink by
using standard blocks only, which is realized in almost any DSP (Digital Signal Processing) processor by using
auto-coding tool in Matlab. STM32F4 microcontroller was employed. Simple Active Currents Reading Error
Compensator was introduced for appropriate feedback signals filtering. Precision of the signal was set to around
10 mA of current –10 Bit with an Analog-to-Digital Converter operated by three bidirectional 5-A Hall current
sensors. A PMSM sensored motor was tested in 0~2 000 r/min. The experimental step responses to desired
speeds show good dynamic and smooth performance of the entire system.

The state-of-the-art and technical trends of intelligent and connected vehicle (ICV) are illustrated.
The ICV system architecture included the value chain, technology chain and industrial chain. The four stages of
ICVs were the advanced assistance, connected assistance, cooperative automation and highly/fully automated
driving. Some key technologies of ICVs were introduced such as environmental perception, decision making,
dynamical control, human-machine copilot, V2X communication and platform, cyber security. Therefore, China
should develop the ICV industry rely on the top-down design by using the national institutional advantages
because the ICV will be an important direction of the automotive technology in the future, and the ICV
development is a great opportunity for the transformation and upgrading of China's automobile industry.

Several countries’ governments are producing mandatory regulations of automotive engineering
to reduce CO2 emission and fuel consumption. The electric vehicles are one of the results by engineers'
special efforts. This paper gives a wider view of innovation of automotive engineering and a look into the
future. Technology trends include that 1) More Intelligent driver assistance systems can be distinguished
into safety functions, comfort functions, traffic efficiency improvement and environmental effect reduction; 2)
Body technology is determined by the used materials with competition between multi-materials, steel, and
carbon fibres; 3) Chassis technology is improved by integrated vehicle dynamics control, active suspension
components and material application; 4) Drive trains are converted into hybrid-drives with intelligent solutions
on the horizon for these hybrid gearboxes, but also for four-wheel drive systems; 5) Electronic control is
focusing on central control modules, the mobile phone for quite new applications and inventions for car
lighting.

The performance and life of electric-vehicle battery-systems are affected by the temperature. A
liquid cooling/heating Battery Thermal Management (BTM) with an optimum geometric structure was designed
to keep the average battery-system temperature in the range from 20 ℃ to 45 ℃ and the temperature gradient
within 3 ℃ . According to overall system flow balancing in a BTM, cooling/heating plates with different structure
parameters were simulated to investigate cooling effects of the BTM. An infrared thermal imager monitored the
cooling/heating plate temperature rises in battery-system heating experiments. Experimental and simulation
results were shown to be the same. The results show that the structure with an inlet and an outlet on the
same side has an even flow distribution. By combining the simulation and optimization, the obtained optimum
combination of the inlet velocity and the temperature in the cooling/heating plate reduces the plate-surfacetemperature
standard-deviation to 2.61 ℃ , and makes the battery system uniformly heated.

 Investments of automotive safety technology have substantially been increased due to heavy casualty in traffic accident in China. It thereby accelerates the improvement of R&D capability of safety technology and commercialization process. The fact that the domestic-brand vehicles have achieved C-NCAP 5-star rating marks a great leap forward in terms of passive safety technology in China. The research of passive safety is further performed with regard to pedestrian protection, rear-row passenger’s protection, whiplash protection and cyclist protection. Meanwhile, the research and development of active safety, pre-crash safety and intelligent automotive network system have become the focuses. The perfect combination of high level active and passive safety technology regarding to passenger, vehicle and environment will promote the accomplishment of safety philosophy of zero crash and zero casualty. The subject establishment of state-level development and industrialization, and regulations constitution and perfection thereof will become the driving force of rapid growth of auto safety technology

A research progresses on the working principle, development path, application status and regulation of the autonomous emergency braking (AEB) technology were introduced to promote the car’s autonomous emergency braking technology to be safer and more efficient. The key technologies related to the
comprehensive performance of AEB system were summarized, including collision avoidance strategy, braking execution technology and front-end perception technology. The results show that AEB system can effectively avoid or mitigate collision, which can greatly improve the vehicle's active safety performance. However, AEB system can’t avoid any collision at higher vehicle speed and more complex traffic scenarios on account of low level braking execution technology and front-end perception technology. The technology focus for AEB will be comprehensive performance optimization of collision avoidance strategy in more complex traffic scenarios, the development of brake actuators based on shorter response time objectives, and the deep integration and the coordinated control of multiple active safety technologies under dangerous driving conditions.

Field data analyses have shown that the occupant protection in rear seats failed to keep pace with the advances in front seats likely due to their low occupancy and the lack of advanced safety technologies. This study provided a comprehensive literature review on rear seat occupant protection addressing the different needs for a diverse population, ranging from children in harness restraints to adults with a wide range of stature, age, and body shape. Based on the findings from field data analyses, experimental studies, and computational simulations, rear seat safety can be improved by properly using age-appropriate child restraints and introducing
adjustable/advanced/adaptive features into the rear seat restraint systems. However, the lack of biofidelic injury assessment tools for children, older, and/or obese occupants will be one of the major challenges for further improving the rear seat safety. The increased proportion of older and obese populations, the growth of lightweight vehicles, the popularity of smart-phone-based ride service, and the advances in active safety technology and autonomous vehicles will likely increase the significance of rear seat safety but at the same time will pose additional challenges. All these trends suggested that more efforts on optimizing rear seat restraint systems adapting to a wide range of impact conditions, occupant characteristics and sitting postures are necessary in the future.

Commercial vehicles are an important force in road transportation and a large carbon emitter. Realizing the green transformation and development of commercial vehicles is an important breakthrough in accelerating the achievement of the “Carbon-Peak and Carbon-Neutrality” target in the automotive industry. However, policy-driven and market demand have posed new challenges and requirements for the development of commercial vehicle technology, especially with the emergence of multiple technological routes for power transmissions. This paper focuses on the application scenarios of medium and heavy trucks, light and pickup trucks, and buses under different power sources such as traditional fuel, hybrid, pure electric, and hydrogen fuel cell, and analyzes the technical characteristics, product spectrum, applicability in different scenarios, and technological development trends of power transmission systems for commercial vehicles. A new prospect is put forward for the development of power transmission technologies for commercial vehicles to provide a reference for the technical path selection and technological innovation and development of commercial vehicle transmissions.

Development status and trend of connected automated vehicle highway (CAVH) system are presented. The system consists of four key modules: sensing module, fusion and prediction module, planning module, and control module. The system initially starts from a level of “simple vehicle, smart road” or “smart
system” and gradually migrates to a higher-level system of “smart vehicle, smart road”, which can significantly improve transportation efficiency, traffic safety and energy consumption. The development of the CAVH system is very important for China. Accordingly, the roles and functions of government agencies in transportation planning, construction and management need be well defined to develop the CAVH system.

The current international vehicle technology was introduced. This article described the passive safety technology: automotive collision safety design and vehicle structure design technology, key technology of advanced passenger restraint systems, vehicle safety devices to protect pedestrians, collision safety and security performance evaluation database platform; and the active safety technology: vehicle dynamics stability control technology, integrated chassis control technology, intelligent security auxiliary control technology, pre-warning technology based on people - Vehicle dangerous condition monitoring. A development mode of the advanced automotive security technology, was proposed. The  trends of the car-road coordinate control, intelligent highway and basic research of common technology were also preseuted.

To promote the fuel economy level of passenger vehicle industry in China is beneficial to energy
saving and emission reduction. The Corporate Average Fuel Consumption (CAFC) of passenger vehicles
in China market was investigated based on the authority’s data and standards. The results show that the
passenger-vehicle CAFC in China market in the year of 2011 is 7.5 L/(100 km), which overall meets the target
value of Phase 2 in the "Limits of Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars" (GB 19578-2004, 2004-09-02) of
China, but does not meet the target of Phase 3 (GB 27999-2011, 2011-12-30). The vehicle companies with
independent-brands have lower real CAFC values than those with the joint-venture-brands, but have a higher
ratio of the real value to the CAFC target standard, so they have more work to do to meet the Phase 3 standard.
Compared with domestic vehicles, imported passenger vehicles have higher CAFC real values and a higher
ratio of the real value to the target standard, which shows a severe challenge to the domestic vehicles.

Autonomous driving is one of the three major innovations in automotive industry. Deep learning is a crucial method to improve automotive intelligence due to its outstanding abilities of data fitting, feature representation and model generalization. This paper reviewed the technologies of deep neural network (DNN) for autonomous vehicles, which covered its history, main algorithms and key technical application. The historical timeline of DNN, its “Unit-Layer-Network” architecture, and two types of representative models were introduced. The training algorithms centered on back propagation (BP), labelled datasets and free-source frameworks for deep learning were summarized, followed by the introduction to computing platforms and model optimization technologies. Finally, the applications of DNN in autonomous vehicles were discussed, including object detection and semantic segmentation, hierarchical and end-to-end decision-making, longitudinal and lateral motion control. The applicable methods and future works for different key problems of DNN in autonomous vehicles were pointed out.

Electromagnetic brakes (EBs) are widely applied in commercial vehicles for their characteristics of
contactless, fast response, and simple controlling. The principle and research situation of EBs were given to
expand their application scopes and functions. The application status, the structure, the working principle and
the control method of EBs were discussed to three main EBs including the eddy current retarder, the rotary eddy
current retarder, and the self-excited retarder for commercial vehicle. The results show that the key technologies
are the external and inner characteristics of the electromagnetic brakes, the matching designs and the design
of control strategy and the controller of united braking system of both electromagnetic and friction. Technology
focus for electromagnetic braking will be the integrated system of electromagnetic brakes and frictional brakes,
and function extension of electromagnetic brake system.

Ethanol is being promoted as a renewable fuel and as a means of improving energy security. The
blends of gasoline and ethanol from 0 – 100 % ethanol were studied to evaluate their spray characteristics,
combustion performances, and particulate emissions with blends of ethanol and water with up to 40 % water
by volume being tested to research the combustion performances of different water ethanol blends and the
miscibility of water with ethanol/gasoline blends using ternary phase diagrams for gasoline, ethanol, and water.
The results show that presence of water in ethanol/gasoline mixtures is not an impediment to their use as a fuel
in gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines. Adding ethanol to gasoline increases the injected fuel volume and the
persistence of the fuel sprays, especially for a cold engine, leads to reduced mixture homogeneity, a decrease
in the combustion stability, and an increase in particulate matter emissions for a stoichiometric mixture. Adding
water to ethanol further increases injected fuel volume, but the increase in combustion duration and reduction in
combustion stability are not significant with up to 30 % water by volume.

A review on the state-of-art in the world for fuel cell technology was given, which is an efficient,
clean, and new energy technology, including in China, northern America, European Union, Japan, South Korea
and so on. A comparison analysis was made in different aspects, such as the technical specifications of fuel
cell vehicles, the lifetime and the environmental adaptability of fuel cell engines, the hydrogen storage system,
the key materials, the auxiliary system of fuel cells, the demonstration of fuel cell vehicles and the infrastructure
of hydrogen refueling stations. The results show that global automobile companies are prepared for the
industrialization of fuel cell vehicles, and will enter mass production stage in 2015; while fuel cell vehicles are still
in the demonstration stage in China. The future hot points in next generation fuel cell vehicles are the cell life
extension, the system cost reduction, the hydrogen infrastructure construction, and commercial demonstration.

Along with the development of economy and vehicle technology, traffic accidents have some particular characteristics including the high mortality of vulnerable road users and ‘nonstandard groups’ of people, crash incompatibility, high death rate of single-vehicle accidents, and a significant number of accidents caused by drivers’ insufficient perception. The developing trends of active safety technologies and passive safety technologies in terms of each subsystem by analyzing the traffic accident data in China, Europe and the United States since 2000. The main trends of passive safety include protection on vulnerable road users, adaptive passenger protection, crash compatibility and adaptive crashworthiness. The main trends of active safety include vehicle dynamic management and intelligent driving assistant. The comprehensive safety technology integrating the active and passive safety will be an important trend for the development of future vehicles.

Authors reviewed the role of fuel additive in producing quality transportation fuels and fuel additive for optimal vehicle performance, meanwhile studied fuel additive application for advanced hybrid vehicles and direct injection engines. Transportation fuel and vehicle technology are rapidly evolving in response to regulatory and commercial efforts to assure energy supply, improve fuel economy and reduce mobile source emissions.  Along with these changes, the fuels must meet the demands for transportation and storage in a safe and efficient manner and the vehicle performance requirements to ensure acceptable operation in consumer use.  This evaluation looks at the broad class of fuel additives and considers how they can provide fuel producers with a means to readily deliver safe and effective transportation of fuel and to allow for effective operation of changing engine technologies. 

Under the trend and background of continuous strengthening of motor vehicle pollution control and continuous electrification of vehicle power, in recent years, many countries around the world have been discussing the “no internal combustion engines” orders. Meanwhile, more stringent emission regulations have been introduced one after another, which have become a matter of life and death to the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) power. However, ICEs will remain the main form of power for heavy commercial vehicles due to the requirement of transport capacity and driving distance. At present, the European Union, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have all issued new heavy-duty vehicle emission regulations, and China has also started research on the National VII emission standards. This article compares and analyzes the latest developments and trends of European and American heavy-duty vehicle and engine emission regulations at the next stage from 6 aspects: exhaust emissions, actual road tests, greenhouse gas emissions, on-board diagnostics (OBD) and remote monitoring, non-exhaust emissions, and durability requirements. The specific requirements of each standard are clarified, and possible technical routes are pointed out, aiming to provide reference for the heavy-duty vehicle and engine industry to respond to emission standard upgrades and related forward-looking research in a timely manner. The research results shows that there are 5 major development trends in the future emission standards of heavy-duty vehicles: Exhaust emission testing is developing towards ultra-low emissions of multiple pollutants, and in the case that it may become the final generation of emission regulations, long-term emission reduction plans should be considered in emission regulations at the next stage; Pay more attention to vehicle on-road, low load, idle and cold start emissions; Strengthen coordinated control of greenhouse gas and conventional gas emissions; Realize efficient monitoring of in-use vehicle emissions by means of remote big data; Add the tests of non-exhaust emissions such as braking and tire wear. In short, the next stage of pollution standards for heavy-duty vehicles will incorporate new methods and concepts in terms of pollution types, emission testing methods, and emission monitoring methods, so as to continuously promote the development of heavy-duty vehicles towards the goal of clean, environmentally friendly and efficient.

As global traffic congestion and safety concerns become increasingly prominent, the widespread application of autonomous driving technology is considered a vital solution. Two prominent areas of research in autonomous driving are single autonomous driving (SAD) and intelligent vehicle-infrastructure collaboration systems (i-VICS). This paper explores the fundamental concepts and critical technologies of both. In terms of SAD, the focus is on perception, localization, decision-making, planning, and control execution, while i-VICS is centered on cooperative perception, collaborative localization, vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, and hierarchical cloud control. Furthermore, it reviews the progress of research in these technologies and summarizes the development paths chosen by China, the United States, Germany, and Japan. The transformative impact of these technologies on the commercial and industrial supply chains is also examined. Finally, the paper analyzes the technical challenges faced by both SAD and i-VICS, along with the social and legal challenges of autonomous driving, offering insights into future development directions, and providing a reference for the innovation and application of autonomous driving technology.

Safe-driving was assisted with key parameters calibrated according to the driver’s characteristics
using a developed system of vehicle collision warning and collision avoidance (CW/CA). The system defines the
inverse of time-to-collision (TTC-1) as the evaluation index with the grading warning and braking safe distance
model adopted based on hazardous level ε . A millimeter waveradar obstacle detection method was designed
with adaptive cruise control (ACC). The system configuration and control logic were designed based on a Jetta
car with the collision avoidance test and the manual / automatic interaction test implemented on dry roads. The
real car experiments show that the CW/CA system in accordance with desired TTC-1 index improves vehicle
active safety, and embodies the driver’s priority and cooperation.

This paper illustrates the development of Chinese automotive industry and the evolvement of related energy and emission regulations in the decade 2000—2009. It points out that the importance of energy-saving will exceed the problem of pollution. Gasoline direct injection (GDI) and downsizing are the main two approaches for low fuel consumption.The downsizing technology for port fuel injection (PFI) gasoline engines has an advantage of low cost, while the downsizing technology for GDI engines has a better fuel economy. The 2nd generation of GDI engines with stoichiometric combustion has a limited potential of low fuel consumption. The 3rd generation of GDI engine should solve three problems, including knock at high compression ratio, combustion stability in exhaust diluted atmosphere, and particulate matters formation in stratified mixture. Homogeneous charge compression ignition ( HCCI) is an ideal combustion mode for energy-saving and emission reduction of gasoline engines. Gasoline/diesel dual-fuel combustion can reach the highest benefit on fuel consumption, providing the possibility for unification of gasoline engines and diesel engines in the future.

Durability is one of the challenges for the commercialization of fuel cell vehicles. The mechanisms and solutions
for fuel cell degradation are elucidated from the material and system point of view. In the aspect of fuel cell system, typical
operating processes are analyzed, such as driving cycles, start-stop, low load and idle conditions, in which reactant starvation,
dynamic potential scanning and local high potential have significant impacts on the fuel cell durability. Feasible strategies are also
discussed for mitigating the degradation. The current state and perspective are addressed on the durability of key material in fuel
cells, i.e., catalyst, catalyst support, proton exchange membrane, membrane electrode assembly and bipolar plate. The effective
methods to enhance the fuel cell durability should be based on both the material innovation and system improvement. Currently,
the improvement on system control strategy is a feasible way to prolong fuel cell lifetime although it has been result in a complex
system. Nevertheless, material innovation is a long term task to promote the fuel cell durability. Fuel cells with advanced durable
materials and simply system is a desirable goal for the fuel cell vehicle application.

Since China promised to “reach the carbon peak in 2030 and carbon neutrality in 2060” at the 75th United Nations General Assembly in September 2020, the Paris Agreement signed by major countries and regions in 2016 has controlled the rise of global temperature and accelerated carbon neutrality policies and actions. As the leading power of a large number of road and non-road mobile machinery and national defense equipment, internal combustion engine (ICE) not only undertakes the important mission of energy saving and emission reduction in the near and medium term, but also faces great challenges and important opportunities on how to achieve carbon neutrality in the future. Based on the analysis of carbon neutrality policies and actions in major European countries, America, Japan and China, this paper puts forward two technical paths and their feasibility of low-carbon and zero carbon of ICE in the near and medium term, as well as the key technologies to be solved for zero carbon ICE fueled by biomass fuel, green hydrogen, green ammonia and green electricity synthesized fuel (e-fuel). It aims to explore the road of sustainable development for the future of ICE. Existing research shows that ICE, as an efficient and high power density thermal engine for converting chemical energy into mechanical energy, still has a large room for energy saving through the combination of electrification and intelligent technologies. Compared with fuel cell power, ICE has a more complete industrial chain, higher technical maturity and lower cost. By utilizing zero carbon fuels, ICE can still be widely used in large-scale power equipment such as heavy trucks, construction machinery, ships and aviation, so as to promote the early realization of carbon peak and carbon neutrality in China’s energy and transportation field.

The performances of hybrid propulsions and hybrid brakes of various electric vehicles (EVs)
significantly affect their energy efficiency and their safety. The development statuses were worldwide reviewed
for the hybrid propulsion and hybrid braking technologies from the aspects of the parameter matching and
optimization, the blending energy management, and the dynamical cooperative control to conclude and analyze
the scientific topics and generic technologies. Further researches that need to be carried out in the hybrid
propulsion and the hybrid braking to improve EV performances include the parameter matching and optimization
when vehicle dynamics considered, the construction of cyber-physical system which can provide a platform
for online management of vehicle multi-source and dual-way driving and braking energy, and the investigation
of dynamic characteristics, blended mechanisms, and cooperative control for dynamical-process of the hybrid
propulsion and the braking systems under critical driving situations.

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) possess potential performance advantages, such as high safety and high energy density, making them a strategic frontier in global power battery technology competition, which has been incorporated into the development strategies of major countries including China, the United States, Japan, South Korea, etc. Currently, the research & development of ASSBs has entered a critical breakthrough phase, with the leading enterprises such as Toyota, BYD, and CATL expecting to initiate the applications of ASSBs in electric vehicles around 2027. However, before large-scale application, comprehensive performance evaluation and failure analysis of ASSBs are still required to ensure their safe and reliable operation under complex working conditions in electric vehicles. Notably, existing research indicates that ASSBs still suffer from risks of thermal runaway and are not absolute safe, as their failure mechanisms under complex operating conditions remain inadequately understood. In light of this, this paper systematically reviews the potential safety issues of ASSBs from the perspectives of materials, interfaces, and cell design, including the intrinsic thermal stability of key materials such as cathodes, anodes, and solid state electrolytes; high-temperature thermochemical reactions at the cathode/anode-electrolyte interfaces; lithium dendrite growth and the resulting internal short circuits; and toxic gas production and environmental hazards during battery failure. Building on this analysis, the paper further outlines future research strategies for the safety of ASSBs from the perspectives of in-depth failure-mechanism analysis, optimization of key materials and interfacial stability, and system-level gas management and thermal protection, thereby offering systematic theoretical support and practical guidance for their safety assessment and engineering deployment.

Intelligent-vehicle structures are highly integrated with sensors, electronic systems, in-vehicle networks, communications, and cloud services, and these components interact strongly with each other. Such integration results in a pronounced fusion between physical structure and vehicle functions. Accordingly, the associated safety technologies have evolved into a strongly coupled framework that integrates structural safety, functional safety, and information security. This trend may have profound impacts on individuals, industries, and even national strategic interests. With data-flow transmission and interaction taken as the main thread, a comprehensive safety architecture with strong coupling across the structural, functional, and information domains is systematically reviewed. Major gaps are identified, including insufficient adaptability to extreme scenarios, an incomplete understanding of cross-domain coupling mechanisms, and inadequate full life-cycle safety assurance. The coupling between structural dynamic responses under multi-source disturbances and abnormal behaviors in electronic subsystems (perception, control, and connectivity) is further examined. On this basis, a strongly coupled structure-function-information safety and protection approach is proposed, and a safety detection and evaluation mechanism is established by explicitly considering cross-domain parameter interactions. The proposed mechanism supports multi-source risk linkage analysis, coordinated strategy management and control, and quantitative safety assessment. These results can serve as a technical reference for the large-scale deployment of intelligent vehicles and the improvement of related safety standards.

A robust model predictive control (RMPC) strategy based on an active disturbance rejection extend state observer (ESO) was proposed to improve the robustness and tracking accuracy of clamping force control in an electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system. Firstly, electrical disturbances, mechanical disturbances, and environmental disturbances inherent in the EMB system were analyzed, and a mathematical model incorporating a lumped disturbance term was established. Secondly, an EMB clamping force control strategy based on RMPC was formulated, introducing an active disturbance rejection ESO to estimate and compensate for disturbances. Finally, a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experimental platform was developed to validate the proposed method. The results show that the EMB clamping force controlled solely by MPC exhibits significant fluctuation under load disturbance, with a maximum error of 228 N and a maximum error rate of 5.7%; In contrast, the clamping force under the combined RMPC with ESO action shows a maximum steady-state tracking error of only 38 N, with a maximum error rate of 1.52%, indicating that the proposed control strategy effectively suppresses disturbance effects, which can achieve high clamping force tracking precision and strong anti-disturbance capability.

The relationship between collision patterns in truck-versus-electric-two-wheeler crashes, the kinematic responses of riders, and injury characteristics were investigated. 16 simulation experiments were constructed by using the multi-body modeling software MADYMO based on 263 scenario-related cases to analyze the collision angles and the positions. The results show that the head injury metrics (the head injury criterions (HIC) and the head angular accelerations) sharply increase when the collision angles exceeds 110°, with the peaking at the collision angle of 120° (the HIC of 11 931, the head angular acceleration of 73.9 krad/s²). When the collision position is in the central area of the truck, the cyclist’s HIC (1 231~1 461) and the head angular acceleration (22.6~26.9 krad/s²) fall within lower ranges, that means lower risk of head injury. When the collision occurs on either side of the truck, the cyclist’s chest 3-ms acceleration is 25.8g~121.8g, that means a lower risk of chest injury. Therefore, both the collision angle and the collision position have a significant impact on the cyclist’s kinematic response.

Aiming at the matching problem of advanced restraint system in vehicle crashes, the distribution frequencies of vehicle Occupant Load Criterion (OLC) and the advanced restraint system parameters during the frontal rigid barrier collisions conducted over the recent three-year of a company were statistically analyzed. A Finite Element (FE) for crash simulation matrix was established. The Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test and the Spearman correlation analysis methods were used to investigate the vehicle OLC effect and the restraint system parameters on occupant injuries. The results show that the increased OLC significantly increases the occupant injuries severities (the correlation coefficient ρ=0.66, the significance p value<0.01) while the airbag vent size and the retractor TTF (time to fire) cannot significantly affect occupant injuries. The increased seatbelt first-level load limiter mitigates head injury but increases chest compression. Using the Pyrotechnic Lap Pretension (PLP) to pretension lap belt and the Crash Locking Tongue (CLT) to cut off the transfer of seatbelt forces can slightly decrease the chest compression. Moreover, the occupant hip restraint is enhanced and the movements of hip and legs are reduced, which alleviate the vehicle interior-leg impact severity and significantly reduce the lower limbs injury risks.

A hierarchical energy management strategy-adaptive initial equivalent factor strategy (HEMS-AIEFS) was proposed to achieve near-global optimal energy allocation under real driving conditions. HEMS-AIEFS adopted a two-layer structure: The upper layer implemented a node-split state-of-charge (SOC) planning method for batteries, which used a dynamic programming (DP) algorithm to generate the relevant data for training neural network models. These models can predict the SOC node trajectories of different road sections in real time; In the lower layer, the predicted equivalent consumption minimization strategy (P-ECMS) was used to track the predicted SOC trajectories, in which the adaptive initial equivalent factor strategy (AIEFS) was added to set the initial equivalent factor (EF₀). The results show that the proposed AIEFS reduces fuel consumption by 2.36% to 7.69% compared to the conventional method of determining the initial equivalence factor, and that HEMS-AIEFS saves 1.56% to 9.13% of fuel consumption under different operating conditions comparing to the CD-CS strategy and requires 4.9% to 5.6% of the computation time of the DP algorithm. This study provides an effective optimization method for plug-in hybrid elective vehicle (PHEV) energy management optimization and demonstrates the potential application of navigation information in PHEV energy management optimization.

To achieve lateral displacement control of pure electric vehicle models during the safety development process for small offset frontal collisions, a combined simulation and experimental approach ware employed to identify the key structural factors influencing lateral displacement, and to investigate the design methodology and evaluation metrics for front compartment configurations associated with such displacement behavior. Taking a certain type of pure electric architecture sedan of the company as an example, an optimization plan was designed. The results indicate that the proposed scheme increases the lateral displacement of the vehicle during collision disengagement by 236 mm, reduces the maximum structural intrusion by 119 mm in the structural rating assessment, achieves controlled vehicle sideslip. And the G rating is met, validating the effectiveness of the evaluation index, and providing a valuable reference for the development of small-overlap safety strategies in new energy vehicle programs.

As the core technology of robot navigation and environment perception, LiDAR-based simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) technology has been widely used in the fields of autonomous driving, drones, robots and so on. This paper summarizes the basic framework and key technologies of LiDAR-based SLAM, and focuses on the point cloud processing, front-end data registration, back-end optimization and closed-loop detection steps of LiDAR. It further reviews classical LiDAR-based SLAM methods and their corresponding improvements, discusses their technical innovations, and reveals the developmental trajectory and research trends of LiDAR-based SLAM, namely the transition from single-sensor-driven systems to multi-sensor fusion, from traditional geometric constraints to enhanced semantic understanding, and from local pose estimation to global consistency optimization. Meanwhile, an indoor 3D mapping experiment was conducted using a Livox HAP LiDAR to validate the effective support of high-precision maps constructed by SLAM for environmental perception tasks. Experimental results show that point cloud maps obtained through LiDAR-based SLAM can not only reconstruct the spatial structure of a scene with relatively high accuracy, but also provide a reliable data foundation for downstream tasks such as semantic segmentation, thereby demonstrating the significant application value of LiDAR-based SLAM in perception systems. Finally, the paper discusses the development potential of LiDAR-based SLAM in directions such as deep learning, neural radiance fields, and multi-sensor fusion, and points out that challenges remain in dynamic environment adaptation, the trade-off between real-time performance and accuracy, and large-scale engineering deployment.

The application of active grille shutter (AGS) technology was investigated to address the challenge of traditional fixed grilles in hybrid commercial vehicles failing to dynamically adapt to differentiated thermal management demands under dual-heat-source coupling conditions. The impact of AGS de-flection orientation and angle on the aerodynamic and thermal balance performance of a hybrid light truck was analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. And an optimized AGS control strategy was proposed to enhance heat dissipation efficiency while reducing aerodynamic drag, thereby balancing energy consumption and thermal regulation requirements in complex oper-ating scenarios. The results show that the full operating condition of AGS can significantly increase the air intake of the intercooler and radiator, improving the thermal balance performance. The lower deviation of the AGS blades can guide the airflow to the cooling components, and avoid complex chassis parts, resulting to enhance the heat transfer situation and reduce the drag coefficient by about 2.85%. Under the conditions of 50 km/h climbing and 110 km/h high-speed, setting 60° and 75° grille opening can meet the heat transfer needs of the hair cabin, but also reduce the wind resistance coefficient of about 3.21% and 3.88%, respectively. Therefore, it is an important technical means to improve the thermal balance performance and energy consumption state to carry out the AGS optimal matching design and to associate the AGS control strategy on the hybrid light truck model.

The distribution of multiple injuries across body regions of vulnerable road users (VRUs) in vehicle collision accidents was investigated to provide data support for assessing accident occurrence probabilities. 159 cases of in-depth traffic accident were selected from the existed VRU traffic accident database with video (VRU-TRAVi). The impact velocities were acquired by using the method of Direct Linear Transformation (DLT) and the frame-by-frame video analysis. The body injury regions were evaluated by using the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) and the Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS). The results show that the head and the lower limbs are the most common sites of injury. The head injuries total 139 cases, accounting for 87.4% of the total. Lower limb injuries reach 111 cases (69.8%), with the severity being classified into three grades: the minor (AIS 1), the moderate (AIS 2), and the serious (AIS 3). Dual-site/triple-site injuries reach AIS 2 or above, the combination of the head-thorax and abdomen/the head-thorax and abdomen-lower limbs is the most frequent, accounting for 49.0% and 58.8%. The highest proportion of cases is the Maximum Absolute Injury Severity (MAIS) score of 6 in the head region, accounting for 95.7% of all MAIS 6 cases, it is also the primary cause of fatalities in VRUs.

An effective area prediction model was built based on composite material theory and fatigue degradation mechanisms to predict the dynamic response behaviors of rolling-lobe air springs over their full lifecycle. The evolving fatigue characteristics of cords and rubber materials were introduced to establish a multi-physical coupling relationship, in which the effective area was modeled as a function of the fatigue cycles and the deformation excitation amplitude under force. Dynamic validation tests were carried out under different fatigue cycles and deformation excitation amplitudes. The results show that the model prediction error is within 1% at different degradation stages. The effective-area increases with both the fatigue cycles and the deformation excitation amplitude; but decreases with the elastic modulus of the cords and the rubber materials. The effective-area growth trend at 50 °C accelerates and exhibits nonlinear characteristics.

With the global automotive industry transitioning toward electrification and intelligence, and with the continuous advancement of vehicle safety assessment systems, automotive body safety technologies are evolving from traditional passive safety concepts to a comprehensive and systematic safety framework integrating active and passive safety, intelligence and information security, and low-carbon safety. This paper reviews the development of vehicle crash safety regulations and assessment programs both domestically and internationally. From the perspective of body safety, it summarizes the evolution of automotive materials from conventional steels to advanced high-strength steels (AHSS). Taking Baosteel automotive steel products as the example, the technical characteristics and body applications of all three-generations AHSS is introduced. Furthermore, from the perspective of advanced manufacturing technologies such as forming and joining, the critical role of synergistic innovation between material properties and manufacturing processes in enhancing vehicle safety performance is discussed. On this basis, Baosteel's “SMARTeX” safety innovation practice is introduced, which establishes a comprehensive vehicle body safety solution featuring a three-layer, seven-dimensional framework encompassing body-in-white (BIW), assemblies, components, joining, corrosion protection, digital intelligence, and low-carbon safety. Finally, the paper provides perspectives and discussions on the future development of vehicle body safety technologies, emphasizing that the realization of a safe vehicle body relies on the combined intelligence of structural design and material application. Material innovation plays a vital supporting role in body safety and overall vehicle safety development, as well as in the coordinated advancement of high safety, lightweighting, and low-carbonization within the automotive industry.

An integrated framework coupling decision-making with trajectory planning was proposed to enhance the emergency collision avoidance capability of vehicles in high-speed multi-obstacle scenarios and address the challenge of real-time responsiveness in decision-making and planning due to computational complexity. The high-dimensional game problem was simplified into a sequence of single-obstacle interaction processes by establishing a multi-vehicle non-cooperative game model to describe dynamic interactions and designing a sequential decision-making mechanism based on threat assessment. A graphics processing unit (GPU)-accelerated trajectory optimization algorithm was implemented using the open source machine learning framework PyTorch, generating safe and comfortable collision avoidance trajectories while satisfying vehicle dynamic constraints. The results show that the average decision-making computation time of the proposed method in typical high-speed scenarios is 20~50 ms, and trajectory planning takes 33.1~149.1 ms, outperforming traditional model predictive control (MPC) methods. The lateral velocity and acceleration of the planned trajectories are controlled within 4.0 m/s and 4.0 m/s², respectively, meeting safety and comfort requirements. When tracking the planned trajectories, the maximum lateral tracking error and speed error are 0.22 m and 0.59 m/s, respectively, fulfilling the requirements for high-speed emergency collision avoidance. In CARLA simulations, successful collision avoidance is achieved in all scenarios. The conclusion demonstrates that the proposed framework effectively balances decision-making optimality and real-time performance, providing a reliable solution for vehicle active safety in complex scenarios.

Guided by the “dual carbon” strategic goals, China's energy structure transformation has entered a critical phase. Hydrogen, as a clean, low-carbon, and abundant secondary energy source, has become an integral part of the national energy system. Among them, the transportation sector is a key area for achieving carbon emissions reductions. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, with advantages such as zero emissions, high efficiency, and rapid refueling, are widely recognized as a technically viable and scalable solution for the electrification of transportation. This paper reviews hydrogen fuel cells, primarily focusing on the working principles and core components (membrane electrode assemblies, catalysts, proton exchange membranes, etc.) of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), as well as their performance. It also analyzes the scientific and technological challenges confronted with fuel cells during commercialization. The paper examines and summarizes the effects of Pt-based catalyst degradation and carbon support corrosion on catalyst activity loss, and discusses trends toward enhancing catalyst activity and reducing costs. It concludes the factors affecting the durability of proton exchange membranes (PEMs) and proposes improvement measures such as chemical modification and physical reinforcement. It also explores the impact of mechanical and chemical degradation of the gas diffusion layer (GDL) under operating conditions on durability and lifespan, and summarizes the optimization strategies for the microstructure of the GDL and water/thermal management. Regarding the policy and market environment, this paper analyzes hydrogen energy policy trends in China and some advanced nations, it also elaborates on the evolutionary paths of China's two business models: the “vehicle-station-source” closed-loop and full-chain integration, and it expounds the commercialization progress of major global economies. Finally, recommendations are proposed for China's hydrogen fuel cell vehicle industry, emphasizing that overcoming the “bottleneck” of domestic production for critical materials, improving the standards system, and establishing a full-chain innovation ecosystem encompassing “technology research and development-pilot testing-commercial application” are indispensability tasks for driving the high-quality development of the automotive PEMFC industry.

Interchange ramp areas present complex environments where drivers' mental workload varies significantly. The drivers' mental workloads were analyzed while they crossed different interchange ramp types, with the data of driver heart rates being collected by real-vehicle experiments. A mental workload evaluation system was established by using dual-modal electrocardiogram indicators (the HR (heart rate) and the HRV (heart rate variability)). The results show that drivers experience higher mental workload in hub interchange ramps than that in general interchange ramps. Within interchanges, the mental workload is the highest in small-radius loop ramps, followed by the left-turn semi-directional ramps, and the lowest in right-turn directional ramps. Drivers also exhibit greater tension in hub interchange scenarios. The mental workload demonstrates a significant negative correlation with ramp radius. The authors recommend installing deceleration signs in advance on hub interchange sections.

An adaptive neural network control method integrated with dynamic watermark-based attack detection to enhance vehicle safety was proposed to address the dual safety threats of actuator faults and stealthy replay attacks in intelligent connected vehicles. An adaptive fault-tolerant controller with disturbance rejection capability was designed by integrating a radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) and a nonlinear disturbance observer (NDO). Additionally, a dynamic watermark sequence was embedded into the control loop, and an attack detection mechanism was constructed based on system residuals to identify covert replay network attacks. Finally, hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) validation was conducted using a dSPACE-NI co-simulation platform. The results show that the average error during the fault is reduced by 80.71%, comparing with the non-fault-tolerant controller. Furthermore, stealthy replay attacks are successfully detected, and the presence of faults enhances the detection effectiveness without causing false alarms.

Intelligent vehicle cyber-physical systems (IVCPS) are pivotal for transcending the limitations of single-vehicle intelligence, yet their performance is constrained by the conflict between massive data demands and dynamic, scarce communication and computation resources. This conflict stems from the strong coupling between data flow scheduling and computation task scheduling. Prevailing research often adopts a decoupled approach by optimizing these two aspects independently, overlooking the resultant systemic performance bottlenecks and lacking a comprehensive framework for Data-Computation Co-Scheduling. Therefore, this paper systematically reviews the paradigm shift in IVCPS scheduling from resource-driven independent optimization to task-driven integrated co-design. It dissects the evolution of coordination mechanisms, from explicit coordination to implicit fusion, and identifies key future research directions, particularly in applying multi-agent reinforcement learning to resolve distributed resource conflicts and ensuring the trustworthiness of artificial intelligence (AI) decisions. This study aims to establish a clear theoretical framework for the core issue of data-computation co-scheduling, providing crucial theoretical and technical support for the architectural design of next-generation intelligent transportation systems and advanced autonomous driving.

A trajectory tracking control algorithm integrating fuzzy control strategy with time-domain adaptive adjustment model predictive control (MPC) was proposed. to address the issue that road curvature and vehicle speed information are usually not considered in autonomous vehicle trajectory tracking control, and to suppress lateral deviations during vehicle trajectory tracking while enhancing the anti-interference ability of the control system, A vehicle kinematic model and a model predictive controller were established, different speed conditions were designed, road curvature and desired vehicle speed were taken as fuzzy control inputs, and the prediction horizon parameters of the MPC algorithm were optimized via the fuzzy controller. Joint simulations using Carsim and Simulink were carried out to implement trajectory tracking control at different speeds on two trajectories with distinct curvatures. The results show that, in the double lane change scenario, compared with the fixed-horizon controller and linear quadratic regulator (LQR), the adaptive time-domain MPC controller achieves a maximum reduction of 85.81% and 78.86% in lateral errors at low speed (30 km/h) and high speed (90 km/h) respectively; in the multi-curve scenario, it realizes a maximum reduction of 96.32% and 86.4% in lateral errors at low speed and high speed respectively. These findings confirm that the proposed control strategy can significantly improve the system's tracking performance, effectively reduce trajectory deviations and maintain the dynamic stability of the vehicle under different speed conditions.

To address the insufficient energy management efficiency of composite energy storage hybrid systems in engineering vehicles under complex operating conditions, a global optimization strategy based on dynamic programming (DP) was proposed. This strategy constructed an optimal power allocation control model using load demand torque, the state of charge (SOC) of hydraulic accumulator, and battery SOC as state variables, and solved the control sequence through inverse recursive-forward optimization. The feasibility of applying the DP strategy in practical engineering was further validated through hardware-in-the-loop testing. The results show that compared to rule-based (RB) and adaptive neural fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) strategies, the DP strategy increases the proportion of engine operation within the high-efficiency zone by 38.28% and 30.27%, respectively. It reduces the comprehensive fuel consumption by 15.17% and 11.23%, and the battery SOC fluctuation by 34.02% and 23.97%, respectively. The average SOC of the brake energy recovery accumulator are increased by 29.46% and 23.51%, and the average battery SOC are improved by 11.57% and 8.62%, respectively. These results demonstrate that the DP strategy effectively enhances engine efficiency, maintains stable operation within the high-efficiency zone, and achieves overall system energy optimization. The DP strategy provides both theoretical justification and practical solutions for energy-saving control in construction machinery.

A modular optimization scheme for aerodynamic components was proposed to enhance the performance of a commercial pure electric pickup truck built on a traditional fuel vehicle platform. The research combined computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation, wind tunnel testing, and coast-down testing to analyze, optimize, and validate the vehicle's aerodynamic performance. The simulations using STAR-CCM+ software identified an excessively high front face, an uneven underbody, and poor sealing to be the three major sources of aerodynamic drag. The investigation focused on eight key components, including the front air dam, side steps, and roof rack, to examine their aerodynamic effects and drag reduction mechanisms. The results indicate that the optimized design reduces the drag coefficient (C_d) by 21.06% in CFD simulations and by 20.6% in wind tunnel tests. The deviation of less than 3% between these values confirms the reliability of the CFD model. Coast-down tests further demonstrates a 6.3% increase in driving range. This work provides practical engineering methodologies and experimental evidence for the aerodynamic development of commercial “fuel-to-electric” converted pickup trucks.