Journal of Automotive Safety and Energy

Current status of the research on key technologies of vehicle fuel cell stack

ZHANG Junliang, CHENG Ming, LUO Xiashuang, LI Huiyuan, LUO Liuxuan, CHENG Xiaojing, YAN Xiaohui, SHEN Shuiyun

2022, 13(1): 1-28. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.001

Abstract ( 929 )

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The proposed “Double Carbon” policy has brought a broad prospect to the development of hydrogen energy. Fuel cell, as the best way of hydrogen energy utilization, has been embracing a new round of prosperity in research field and industry, and proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), which is maturely developed in commercial vehicles, has gained more attention. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) and bipolar plate (BPP) are two key components of PEMFC stacks, and they directly determine the cost and performance of the stacks. The technologies of water and thermal management and cold start also play vital roles for the realization of stack performance and the promotion of practical application. This article comprehensively illustrates the impact of various technologies above on the performance, lifespan and cost of stacks, and then points out their development trend. In addition, fuel cell vehicles will be applied as buses and heavy duty trucks in near future. And the application as passenger cars put forward higher requirements on power density and cost of stack.

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Research and prospect of multi domain integration of automobile safety

YANG Shuai, ZHANG Jinhuan, QIAN Zhanwei, CUI Dong

2022, 13(1): 29-47. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.002

Abstract ( 678 )

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This paper proposed a concept and basic framework of multi-domain fusion security, and discussed the development status of multiple security fields and the relationship between them. With human safety as the core, the development status of passive safety technology, new energy safety technology, active safety technology and its related functional safety, expected functional safety and other safety technologies were studied, and the fusion relationship between different safety technology fields was further analyzed, especially the development status and future trends of the two fusion paths of active safety and passive safety. Considering the different safety technologies of automobiles as a whole, studying the relationship and integration of various technologies, it provides thinking directions and suggestions for the development of automobile safety technologies.

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Contributing factors and risky scenario of cyclists’ smart phone using behavior

YUAN Quan, QI Yuerui, YU Di, XU Xuecai

2022, 13(1): 48-54. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.003

Abstract ( 255 )

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A comprehensive research was carried out on the causes and scenarios of cyclists’ use of mobile phones in campus based on ergonomics. Face-to-face interviews and field video recordings were employed to summarize the proportion of cyclists using mobile phones. Questionnaire survey method was used to figure out the frequencies and reasons of cyclists using mobile phones, as well as their understanding of the impact of using mobile phones in cycling. By extracting the dataset, a Bayes binomial complementary pair probit model was proposed to analyze the factors of using mobile phone in cycling, such as riding environment, riding time, weather and subjective factors (e.g. gender, habits and mood of cyclists). The results show that the probability of using mobile phone in campus is 3.2%, and most of the riding scenes occur on road sections and working days. The findings provide the basis and direction for the guidance of riding civilization norms and the setting of relevant safety regulations.

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Effect of neck posture on biomechanical response in rear end collision

LI Haiyan, LI Guangming, HE Lijuan, RAN Linghua, LV Wenle, CUI Shihai, RUAN Shijie

2022, 13(1): 55-62. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.004

Abstract ( 207 )

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Based on the CT image data of Chinese 5th percentile female volunteers, a finite element model of neck natural posture with detailed anatomical structure was constructed, and its effectiveness was verified by reconstructing volunteer experiment. The neck extension and flexion posture models was constructed. According to the China-New Car Assessment Program (C-NCAP) whiplash test, the acceleration curves of three neck models with different postures were applied respectively to investigate the biomechanical response of drivers and passengers with different postures. The results show that in natural posture, the maximum stress appears in C7 vertebral body, anterior longitudinal ligament between atlas and foramen magnum, and saccular ligament of atlantoaxial joint; the maximum stress of intervertebral disc appear in C6 - C7 vertebral segment, and NIC and N_km values reach the threshold. The maximum stress in extended posture is the same as that in natural attitude, but the stress value and N_km value are the least of the three postures. In flexion posture, the maximum stress of cortical bone appears at the saccular ligament of axis odontoid and atlantoaxial joint, but NIC value is the smallest among the three postures. This research has a certain reference value for the research and the development of vehicle active headrest and the collision protection measures when the occupant’s neck is in leisure posture in future automatic driving.

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Fractional-order control system for vehicle ISD suspension based on the mechatronic inerter

HUA Jie, SHEN Yujie, CHEN Long, LIU Yanling, YANG Xiaofeng

2022, 13(1): 63-69. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.005

Abstract ( 196 )

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A quarter suspension dynamic model was established to improve the vibration isolation performances of vehicle suspension with inerter-spring-damper (ISD). A fractional order PID (proportion integration differentiation) control system of suspension was built taking the vehicle riding comfort as the object; Considering the vehicle body acceleration, the suspension working space and the dynamic tire load; Using a multi-objective genetic algorithm to optimize the parameters of both integer order and fractional order control model for the ISD suspension; The dynamic performances were simulated and analyzed in Matlab/Simulink for vehicle ISD suspension. The results show that compared with the traditional passive suspension, the root mean square values of the body acceleration, the suspension dynamic travel and the dynamic tire load of the ISD suspension with integer order control are reduced by 13.9%, 26.2% and 1.5% respectively, and the ISD suspension with fractional order control is reduced by 15.4%, 31.5% and 6.8% respectively. Therefore, the fractional order control system improves the ride comfort and handling stability.

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Piecewise affine identification of the tire nonlinear mechanical properties under combined conditions

WANG Yulin, HU Weiwei, SUN Xiaoqiang

2022, 13(1): 70-77. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.006

Abstract ( 195 )

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A mathematical modeling approach was proposed based on piecewise affine (PWA) identification for accurately approximating the nonlinear characteristics of the tire mechanical properties under longitudinal and lateral combined driving conditions. The statistical data clustering method based on Gaussian mixture model was used to conduct the data clustering, thus the original experimental data of the tire mechanical properties can be divided into several subsets. The parameter estimation of the affine submodel was achieved based on least square algorithm. the hyperplane coefficient matrices between adjacent affine sub-models were calculated by using the modified proximal support vector machine method. To verify the accuracy of the identified model, the comparison between the model simulation data and the experimental data was conducted. The results show that the PWA identified tire model can well approximate the nonlinear relationship between the tire longitudinal force and lateral force and their influencing factors under combined conditions, and the overall fitting accuracy of the model is more than 93%.

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Fault-tolerant control of speed sensors for direct drive in-wheel electric vehicles

SHAO Jincai, HE Zhiyuan, WANG Zihui

2022, 13(1): 78-85. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.007

Abstract ( 510 )

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A fault-tolerant diagnosis and control strategy was proposed for direct drive in-wheel electric vehicle based on sensorless algorithm to improve the vehicle driving performance and the handling stability when the speed sensor fails. A three-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model was established to analyze the influences of speed sensor fault on the vehicle dynamic performances. A thresholding characteristic method was applied for diagnosing sensor failure and its type, and a sensorless algorithm was used based on the flux observer to estimate the rotor position angle. A state-switching method was designed based on power angle progressive compensation for smooth torque transition. The speed sensor fault-tolerant control processes under straightforward test condition and double-lane change test condition were verified by Matlab-CarSim co-simulation platform. The results show that the proposed control strategy restores and maintains 100% motor torque output within 3 ms, and eliminate the yaw angular velocity of 0.77 (°)/s, and therefore, improves vehicle driving performances.

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Control strategy of electric power steering for commercial vehicle based on Multi-MAP

LI Yaohua, HE Jie, FAN Jikang

2022, 13(1): 86-94. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.008

Abstract ( 338 )

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An electric power steering (EPS) control strategy based on multi-MAP was proposed to decrease driver’s road feeling, and to solve the problem that traditional EPS gives too much assist torque under the conditions of a vehicle with light front axle load driving on the road with low adhesion coefficient. This control strategy considered front axle load and road adhesion coefficient based on the change of steering resistance torque under different front axle loads and adhesion coefficients. Determined steering resistance torque under different front axle load and adhesion coefficient by using the Back Propagation (BP) neutral network. This strategy was evaluated through the co-simulation of Trucksim and Simulink. The results show that the proposed EPS control strategy makes the vehicle have good steering portability, handling torque meet the ideal handling torque of commercial vehicle. The steering wheel torque gradient can be increased under light load and low adhesion factor conditions, and the road feel in the driver’s center steering area is increased by an average of 212%, improving driving safety.

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Influence of bicycle seat height on the back lean forward angle and head injury of cyclists

ZOU Tiefang, WU Liangwei, HU Lin, NIE Bingbing, WANG Fang

2022, 13(1): 95-103. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.009

Abstract ( 380 )

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The influence of bicycle seat height on the cyclist lean forward angle of back (back angle) and cyclist head injury was investigated by using bicycle type, seat height, cyclists’ body size and car type as variables with 46 groups of physical experiments and 98 groups of digital simulation experiments. The physical experiments show that bicycle type, seat height and cyclists’ body size are significant factors in the back angle. The digital simulation experiments show that the seat height is significantly related to cyclist head injury, and the change tendency of cyclist head injury with seat height is different under different combination of car type and cyclists’ body size, with being a tolerance limit seat height of the head injury. The internal cause of the decrease in cyclist head injury under the tolerance seat height is the decrease of the relative collision velocity between the head and the vehicle. These results will provide support simulation experiments for car-bicycle collision and provide recommendations for cyclist head protection measures.

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Collision avoidance model and its validation for intelligent vehicles based on deep learning LSTM

FANG Liang, GUAN Zhiwei, WANG Tao, GONG Jinfeng, DU Feng

2022, 13(1): 104-111. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.010

Abstract ( 252 )

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A collision avoidance model was established for intelligent vehicles based on a deep learning Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network. Some driving simulation experiments were carried out at the conditions of following car dangerous driving or front car emergency braking, through a driving simulation platform with a simulation software of Virtual Test Driving (VTD). The relative distances, the relative speeds, the decelerations of the preceding car, the collision times, and the lateral distances were taken as the input parameters. Model mobility was verified by an untrained sample data, and compared with a traditional Back Propagation (BP) neural network. The results show that the R² values of the model are higher than that of the traditional BP model by 0.17 and 0.21, respectively for the predicational decelerations and the predicational steering wheel angles. Therefore, this model has a fitting goodness for the big data samples and can represent the driver actual collision-avoidance behavior, with a value in promoting application of driver assistance system.

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Trajectory tracking control for intelligent vehicles driving in curved road based on expanded state observers

ZHAO Shuen, CHEN Wenbin, DENG Zhaoxue, LIU Wei

2022, 13(1): 112-121. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.011

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A model prediction multi-objective optimal control method was proposed based on extended state observer for tracking control of intelligent vehicles driving on complex curved roads to improve tracking accuracy and driving stability. To prove the observer’ stability, the extended state observer was used to estimate the total disturbance of vehicle tracking in real time. Combined with model predictive control, the multi-objective optimization effect was realized in prediction domain, and the estimated disturbance value was used to compensate feedforward for the control quantity, and the optimal control quantity was obtained under dynamic disturbance. The results show that the lateral location root mean square error is less than 0.11 m, the maximum front wheel angle is less than 85 mrad, and the maximum yaw speed is less than 368 mrad under different vehicle speeds and different road adhesion coefficients. Therefore, this method has good tracking accuracy, driving stability and robustness when driving on complex road curves.

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Multi-channel high-resolution network and attention mechanism fusion for vehicle detection model

DING Fei, MI Guanyu, TONG En, ZHANG Nan, BAO Jianmin, ZHANG Dengyin

2022, 13(1): 122-130. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.012

Abstract ( 203 )

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A vehicle detection model named MCHRANet based on the multi-channel high-resolution network and attention mechanism was proposed to improve the safe, reliable, and stable operation of road traffic monitoring and intelligent connected transportation system (ICTS) in the roadside edge platform. The model adopted multi-channel high-resolution network structure design to retain high-resolution features and ensured detection robustness. The feature fusion method incorporating the attention mechanism realized the deep fusion of multi-scale features through the self-learning of feature connection weights. Each channel network adopted jump connections to promote cross-layer feature fusion and accelerate network convergence. A public data set was used to evaluate the vehicle detection performances in different scenarios. The results show that the vehicle detection performance of the proposed model is better than the three traditional models, the improved network recognition mean average precision (AP) index is close to 95%, and it has good robustness for detection in different scenarios.

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Surrounding vehicle recognition and information map construction technology in automatic driving

LI Maoyue, LV Hongyu, HE Xiangmei, XU Guangqi, YU Wei

2022, 13(1): 131-141. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.013

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A method of vehicle recognition and map construction during automatic driving was proposed based on the fusion of camera image and lidar information to improve satisfactory success rate of single sensor recognition of surrounding vehicles and engineering practicability. The joint calibration and time registration of the camera and the lidar were carried out. The vehicle shadows and lidar detection information in the image were extracted, and the coordinate correlation features between the two were obtained, and whether there was a vehicle nearby was determined according to its threshold range. The camera image information was fused with the detection information of lidar, and the information map of the surrounding vehicles was constructed, and the experimental verification was carried out. The results show that the accuracy of vehicle recognition is 4.25% higher than that of (D-S) evidence theory by using the feature of coordinate correlation degree. The vehicle information map in this paper can realize overtaking track driving based on third-order Bessel curve on the premise of safety.

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Experimental study on different combustion modes of ammonia blended engines

LIU Shang, CAI Kaiyuan, LIU Wei, WANG Wei, ZHAO Ziqing, ZHANG Ridong, ZHANG Qihang, MA Xiao, WANG Zhi

2022, 13(1): 142-148. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.014

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Ammonia (NH₃), as a carbon-free, low-cost and widely available hydrogen carrier, will play an important role in the future development of carbon-neutral internal combustion engines. The effects of ammonia blending on three combustion modes—flame propagation, homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and homogeneous charge induced ignition (HCII) were systematically compared in a rapid compression machine, a high compression ratio gasoline engine and a diesel engine. The results show that the process of ammonia compression ignition exhibits the characteristics of sequential auto-ignition in the combustion chamber, and the flame propagation speed of ammonia in spark ignition (SI) mode is only 0.66 m/s; Ammonia is a good knocking inhibitor. Blending a small amount of ammonia can realize the targets of knocking suppression as well as combustion phase optimization in the gasoline engine, and the indicated thermal efficiency increases 1.2%. But when the ammonia blending ratio is too high, the combustion duration increases while the thermal efficiency decreases. The NO_x emission increases with blending ammonia, but under current experimental conditions, it is not significantly correlated with the blending ratio. In the diesel engine, blending ammonia retards the combustion heat release and increases the combustion duration; The thermal efficiency and NO_x emission decrease, and CO emission increases with the ammonia blending ratio increasing.

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Effect of microwave assisted ignition on CO₂ diluted methane combustion

WANG Zhihao, ZHANG Xinhua, WU Huimin, LIU Chaohui, WANG Zhaowen, HUANG Ronghua, LI Dinggen, WANG Zhi

2022, 13(1): 149-156. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.015

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This paper investigated the characteristics of microwave-assisted ignition of methane under CO₂ dilution conditions to improve the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines and reduce the emission of pollutants. Explored that microwave was fed to the opposed electrodes to promote ignition, and the development law of early flame core under different test conditions by using high-speed schlieren method based on a constant volume combustible bomb platform. The results show that in Microwave Assisted Ignition (MAI) mode, the CO₂ dilution limit is improved, and the 16% CO₂ dilution ratio can still be successfully ignited. Under the condition of 8% CO₂ dilution ratio, feeding microwave energy expands the methane ignition limit from 0.7 in the Spark Ignition (SI) mode to 0.6. With the increase of microwave power, the equivalent radius of flame core increases, but the degree of increase gradually decreases, the enhancement effect of microwave frequency on the flame core under different CO₂ dilution ratios is different. These results can provide theoretical support for the application of microwave assisted ignition technology under Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) atmosphere.

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Creep-fatigue reliability modeling and analysis for automotive tubular radiators

ZHANG Xiangxiao, YANG Xuanhu, LI Xiaoyang, LI Meijun

2022, 13(1): 157-167. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.016

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A creep-fatigue reliability modeling and an analysis method were proposed for automobile engine tubular belt radiators based on the reliability science principle and the uncertainty theory to analyze the radiator reliability for the radiators’ design, manufacture, operation and maintenance. Key failure mechanisms and performance parameters were determined based on functional performances and failure analysis, with constructing the causal relationship between key performance parameters, and their physical attributes, external conditions, time and failure criteria to quantify the uncertainty by using the uncertainty theory and the reliability model. An AA3003 aluminum alloy radiator was used to verify the proposed method, when the variation coefficient of external conditions is reduced to 5%, the radiator reliability increases by 0.1. The results show that the method describes the causal law and the uncertainty effect on the automotive radiator reliability, in addition, reducing the variation coefficient of external conditions improves the radiator reliability.

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Battery thermal management system of electric vehicle based on flexible composite phase change material

CHEN Youpeng, ZHANG Guoqing, QIN Qichao, QIN Zhuogeng, DENG Jian, LI Xinxi

2022, 13(1): 168-175. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.017

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A novel flexible composite phase change material (PCM) composed of styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer / paraffin wax /expanded graphite (SBS / PA/ EG) was prepared through melt blending and organic solvent volatilization to improve the thermal safety and reliability of electric vehicle power battery system and to maintain the power battery system within the normal operating temperature range, considering the temperature control characteristics of flexible composite phase change material. The composite PCM was coupled with a plate heat pipe for significantly improving the homogenization temperature and temperature control characteristics of battery thermal management system. The results show that the thermal conductivity of flexible composite phase change material with SBS/PA/EG is increased to 0.62 W/(m?K) at room temperature, and the latent heat enthalpy reaches 102 J/g. When flexible PCM coupled plate heat pipe as the battery thermal management system of electric vehicles was utilized in the battery module, the maximum temperature can be controlled below 42 ℃ and the temperature difference among batteries maintains within 1.0 ℃at 3 C discharged rate of batteries, exhibiting excellent temperature control and temperature uniformity effect.

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Research on user acceptance of battery swapping technology: The case of electric taxis in Beijing

GAO Suofen, HAO Han

2022, 13(1): 176-185. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.018

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Electric taxis with battery swapping technology have developed rapidly in recent years. But the utilization efficiency, vehicle profitability and user acceptance of battery swapping technology remain unclear. Based on the technology acceptance model, to analyze the acceptance of battery swapping technology and its influencing factors, this study introduces the index system of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and perceived risk to establish the acceptance model of battery swapping technology. Questionnaire survey was conducted to collect the usage data on battery swapping technology among electric taxi drivers in Beijing. The acceptance of battery swapping technology and its influencing factors were analyzed. The results show that the technical acceptance scores of charging mode electric vehicles, charging-swapping mode electric vehicles and internal combustion engine vehicles are 3.80, 3.37 and 4.29, respectively. As a supplement to charging technology, battery swapping technology can effectively relieve range anxiety, but its technology acceptance is still lower than that of traditional internal combustion taxis. It is necessary to focus on improving mileage utilization rate, endurance stability, energy supplement convenience, subjective safety and vehicle profitability to accelerate the promotion and application of electric taxis.

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Estimation of battery internal temperature based on unscented Kalman filter algorithm

CHEN Dehai, WANG Yuzhao, SUN Shiru, LEI Zhijun

2022, 13(1): 186-193. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.019

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A nonlinear unscented Kalman filter (UKF) estimation algorithm was proposed for real-time monitoring lithium-ion power battery’s internal temperature to improve the vehicle power battery’s performances. An equivalent variable parameter thermal model was established for a 2.6 Ah ternary lithium ion battery; The correlation between the internal and external temperature of the battery is established and discretized by the state equation analysis method; The recursive least square (RLS) method is used to identify the four thermal parameters of time, surface temperature, ambient temperature and input current in the thermal model, update the parameter matrix of system state and observation equation in real time, and realize the estimation of battery internal temperature combined with UKF algorithm. The simulation model is built by MATLAB, and the accuracy of the algorithm is verified by three working conditions: hybrid impulse capability characteristic (HPPC), dynamic stress test (DST) and constant current. The results show that the UKF algorithm can estimate the internal temperature of the battery within 1℃ for these three working conditions.

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State of health estimation and remaining useful life prediction of lithium-ion battery based on characteristic voltage model

LAI Xin, MENG Zheng, HAN Xuebing, ZHENG Yuejiu

2022, 13(1): 194-201. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.020

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Capacity estimation and remaining useful life (RUL) prediction of lithium-ion batteries are of great significance to improve their safety. An on-line capacity estimation and off-line prediction of RUL method was proposed based on improved particle filter (PF) algorithm and characteristic voltage model. The characteristic voltage from the discharge curve was extracted, and two correlation models of characteristic voltage-cycle times and characteristic voltage-capacity were established. The characteristic voltage was estimated in real time using an improved PF algorithm, in which the initial value of the probability density was optimized by fitting the sample battery aging data to improve the accuracy of the model parameter identification to improve the accuracy of the established correlation models. The results show that the capacity estimation error can be kept within 3%, and the RUL prediction error can be kept within 5%.

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Construction of the driving cycle for fuel cell bus running in Chengdu demonstration area

JIN Sihan, PENG Yiqiang, WU Xiaohua, HAN Zhen

2022, 13(1): 202-208. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8484.2022.01.021

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In order to construct the driving cycle of the demonstration operation of fuel cell buses in Chengdu, based on the actual driving data of the fuel cell buses in the demonstration area, the pre-processed effective operation data was divided into kinematics segments, and the principal component analysis method was used for data dimensionality reduction processing. The elbow rule was applied to determine the optimal number of clusters, and the K-means++ algorithm was used to cluster the principal components. The optimal kinematics segments were determined based on the proportions of different clusters and the distance from the center point. The results showes that the constructed driving cycle reflects the driving characteristics of the traffic situation in the fuel cell bus demonstration zone in Chengdu and the driving cycle time is 1 577 s; there are some differences in certain characteristic parameters between the driving cycle of fuel cell buses in Chengdu demonstration area and that of Chinese city buses. The above working lays the foundation for the development of an intelligent energy management system for fuel cell buses.

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